Geography and Environmental Management

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This is the collection for the University of Waterloo's Department of Geography and Environmental Management.

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Differential vulnerabilities: Extreme heat, health and well-being of older adults in Sunbelt cities in the United States
(University of Waterloo, 2025-09-22) Dassah, Cornelius
Heat impacts vary disproportionately across geographic regions and social groups. Older adults in Sunbelt cities of the United States (US) are particularly vulnerable to localized urban warming, which threatens their health and well-being. Prevailing scientific evidence suggests that extreme heat events account for higher fatalities among older adults in the US compared to other extreme weather events. Despite existing studies on the impacts of extreme heat on older adults, limited research has addressed the specific socio-demographic, health-related conditions, and strategic coping factors influencing heat stress experiences among older urban populations. As part of a larger study examining heat and ozone-related risks in Sunbelt cities, this thesis adopts a retrospective cross-sectional study design, leveraging the strengths of mixed-methodology to examine predictors of heat stress and coping strategies among older adults in Los Angeles, Houston, and Phoenix. Utilizing a cross-sectional household survey data from 909 older adults in the three cities, the thesis sought to: (1) examine the factors affecting heat stress among older adults; and (2) explore coping strategies among older adults during extreme heat events. Qualitative data were generated from the open-ended survey questionnaire from 67 respondents across the three cities. Data was analyzed using thematic qualitative coding and multiple binary logistic regression analyses. The results reveal that marital status, income, respiratory diseases, physical activity, cool showers, and city of residence were significantly associated with a higher risk of experiencing heat stress. Also, older adults aged 80 and older were less likely to experience heat stress compared to their relatively younger counterparts. Further, the qualitative results uncovered a mix of heat-related coping behaviors adopted by older adults to protect themselves during extreme heat events. These results underscore the complex interplay of geographic, socio-demographic, behavioral and health-related factors affecting heat stress. The study makes important contributions to theory, policy and practice. First, the study contributes to the literature on the geographies of ageing and the relational processes that shape ageing across place, space and scale. Secondly, the study highlights the importance of integrating varied approaches within the geographies of health and healthcare, hence advancing the methodological diversity of the sub-discipline. Finally, the study underscores the need for policies aimed at strengthening social support for older adults, emergency heat risk warning awareness and public cooling systems in Sunbelt cities. The study recommends that urban health strategies should prioritize these demographics, fostering micro-level coping strategies to enhance resilience and reduce vulnerability to heat stress among older populations.
Drivers of Spatial Variation in Methane Emission and The Role of Vegetation in Methane Oxidation from Capped Landfills in Southern Ontario
(University of Waterloo, 2025-09-17) Abewickrama Vidana Pathirana, Sandani Buddhima
Landfills are a major source of methane (CH₄), accounting for 24% of Canada’s total anthropogenic CH₄ emissions. This study investigates the environmental and meteorological factors driving temporal and spatial CH₄ flux variation and the role of vegetation in controlling CH₄ oxidation in landfill cover soils. This study was conducted across two capped landfill sections: the Original Landfill Area (OLA) (an older site without active gas collection system) and the Northern Expansion Area (NEA) (a relatively younger capped site with active gas collection) at a landfill in Southern Ontario. Both field data monitoring across the seasons and controlled incubation were carried out to critically assess CH₄ oxidation behavior in landfill cover soil by integrating vegetation treatments, environmental controls, and site specific controls. Field study revealed that the highest rate of CH₄ oxidation was observed with dry (<10%) and warmer (>25 °C) soil conditions between late summer and early fall, coinciding with reduced rainfall and higher air temperatures. CH₄ uptake was suppressed in wetter and colder conditions in winter and spring, correlating to cold and wetter soil conditions. Meteorological factors such as precipitation and air temperature significantly affected flux variations while wind speed and atmospheric pressure had a negligible impact. Presence of vegetation in landfill covers improved soil characteristics like bulk density, porosity, organic matter content, nitrate, phosphate, potassium and ammonium concentration, though it did not consistently alter the CH₄ fluxes. CH₄ fluxes were higher from the OLA’s cover soils with slightly elevated fluxes in vegetated soil, while comparably lower fluxes were observed from NEA’s cover soils, possibly due to its active gas collection system. Occasional CH₄ hotspots were observed, markedly at NEA even with active gas collection, suggesting localized structural failures in landfill cap or potential subsurface gas leaks. Quantified CH₄ oxidation rates on a per gram of cover soil basis indicated higher oxidation capacity in NEA, likely influenced by hotspots, providing favorable substrate supply to sustain efficient microbial CH₄ oxidation in the landfill cover. The incubation results demonstrated that optimal CH₄ oxidation occurred at 20–40% soil moisture and 25 °C under vegetated and non-vegetated soil covers while CH₄ consumption markedly declined at cool and hot thermal conditions (5 °C and 35 °C), and in soil with higher moisture content (60–80%), reflecting microbial sensitivity to O₂ restrictions and thermal stress. There was no significant vegetation effect, even under controlled incubation conditions, suggesting its influence may be indirect or more context specific (determined by soil structure and microclimate differences). These findings emphasize that vegetation alone cannot stand as a mitigation strategy, but it formed favorable soil characteristics for CH₄ oxidation. A complex interplay between cap maturity, soil physical and chemical conditions, gas transport, CH₄ and O₂ availability, microbial community activity, and weather conditions determined CH₄ dynamics in capped landfill covers across seasons. Adaptive landfill covers should be designed for proper moisture control through drainage to control excessive water retention, incorporating soil amendments rich with organic matter to enhance soil properties for gas diffusivity and microbial habitat to maximize CH₄ oxidation capacity of cover soil. Thus, passive CH₄ mitigation approaches should be combined with engineered infrastructure facilities such as gas extraction systems for better CH₄ mitigation in capped landfill covers. Results from this study will also contribute to national greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories for reporting and accounting and to the development of control strategies or policies towards Canada’s CH₄ emission reduction targets.
A Political Ecology of Wellbeing: The role of civil society organizations in supporting communities with limited access to water, sanitation, and hygiene in Brazil
(University of Waterloo, 2025-09-15) Curty Pereira, Rodrigo
Safe access to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) is key to human health and wellbeing. When populations lack or have limited access to WASH, they are at risk of contracting infectious diseases, suffering dehydration and malnutrition, developing musculoskeletal diseases, experiencing gender-based violence and conflict, and facing challenges to access other social determinants of health, such as health care and education. Regardless, billions of people lack access to safe WASH globally, mainly in low- and lower-middle income countries (LMICs). Nonetheless, historically marginalized groups in high income countries (HICs) and upper-middle income countries (UMICs) still face challenges to access WASH despite available financial and natural resources. In Brazil, the country with the largest supply of freshwater water and the 9th biggest economy in the world, 32 million people lack access to safe water and 89 million, to safe sanitation. The COVID-19 pandemic shone a spotlight on the role of civil society organizations (CSOs) in creating and implementing solutions to access WASH as a way to halt the spread of the disease and offer relief aid to low-income communities that had their livelihoods affected by lockdowns and social distancing measures. Among other initiatives, CSOs around the world donated water and hand sanitizers, constructed communal wells and portable handwashing stations, and raised awareness about proper hygiene habits. Nevertheless, little is known about the way these organizations address WASH inequities, especially in UMICs, and how they support health equity-promoting practices in general. The overall purpose of this research is to examine the role of civil society organizations in promoting solutions to water, sanitation, and hygiene inequities in Brazil. The specific research objectives are: 1) to describe barriers and facilitators in access to water, sanitation, and hygiene in low-income communities in Brazil, 2) to explore the impacts of water, sanitation, and hygiene inequities on the wellbeing of low-income communities in Brazil through political ecology of health, and 3) to investigate solutions to water, sanitation, and hygiene inequities implemented by civil society organizations in low-income communities in Brazil. Using an integrated knowledge translation (IKT) approach to research and informed by political ecology of health, I conducted a multisite case study in three municipalities in the Metropolitan Region of Rio de Janeiro (MRRJ), whose populations experience varying levels of access to WASH and support from CSOs. I interviewed leaders from local CSOs (n = 7) and led focus groups with residents of low-income communities (n = 24) in each municipality. Additionally, I visited the headquarters of partner CSOs, a local water treatment station, other affected communities, and attended meetings with local municipal governments. Interviews and focus groups were recorded and transcribed verbatim, translated from Portuguese to English, and analyzed through thematic analysis on NVivo. The results revealed common barriers in access to WASH in all communities, including frequent and long-lasting water shortages, contaminated drinking water, absence of sewage collection and treatment, and complications from severe weather events. WASH inequities affect several dimensions of participants’ wellbeing but most importantly, emotional health and sense of dignity, as they compared their living conditions to that of residents in other neighbourhoods as a consequence of persisting structural inequities. Finally, solutions to WASH inequities differ according to the level of resources and expertise offered by partner CSOs, revealing geographical inequities in access to funding and manpower between organizations located in the state capital and those in peripheral municipalities. This research makes contributions to the political ecology of health framework by proposing a political ecology of wellbeing through the contextual understanding of “wellbeing” and how WASH access affects low-income communities beyond physical and mental health. Additionally, this research advances the understanding of the complex role of local CSOs as intermediaries between decisionmakers, academics, and marginalized communities, capable of communicating the needs and wants of populations in a concise and representative manner and facilitating both short- and long-term equity-promoting action. Finally, this research contributes to the body of work on WASH inequities in HICs and UMICs, advancing the notion that certain marginalized populations are rendered invisible by global WASH data that ignores nuanced local inequities, such as the frequency and quality of WASH services. In conclusion, CSOs in Brazil promote short-term infrastructural WASH solutions, promote critically reflective dialogue about the distribution of environmental and social determinants of health and wellbeing, and act as intermediaries between powerful actors who decide what happens in the territory, e.g., local politicians, criminal groups, and WASH companies. CSO work can be scaled up if responsible authorities recognize their role as knowledge brokers and design policies considering context-specific needs and challenges for each community, while also supporting civil society organizations’ services to promote autonomy and agency among marginalized groups in the long term.
Tourism & Change: A Longitudinal Analysis on Lodge Development and Energy Consumption in Sagarmatha National Park
(University of Waterloo, 2025-09-02) Manninger, Kaitlyn
Tourism in remote, high-altitude mountain areas presents complex challenges for sustainable development, particularly where there is limited energy infrastructure and environmental sensitivity. The tourism industry has an interdependent relationship with the economy, culture, and lifestyle of mountain communities. Within the industry, lodge accommodations and hotels are the most energy intensive components and are reflective of tourist activity because of their large economic value. Resource consumption within lodges can indicate changes within the socio-economic structure and development of destinations as they evolve to accommodate for tourism demand. This study examines longitudinal patterns of tourist lodge development and energy consumption in Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer Zone (SNPBZ), Nepal. It aims to characterize how tourism interacts with infrastructure and resource use over time to establish a historical database of change over time. Using spatial data, lodge surveys, and semi-structured interviews with lodge owners, this thesis analyzes temporal and spatial trends in lodge development and energy consumption. Data from 1997, 2011, and 2024 were compared to identify long-term shifts and patterns. The results show significant growth in both lodge development and capacities, particularly along the Everest and Farak routes. Energy use has shifted towards alternative sources such as LPG and electricity, though traditional fuels remain common in higher altitude areas. Findings also suggest a growing dependence on tourism revenue for access to sustainable energy sources. This study situates SNPBZ between the development and consolidation stages of Butler’s Tourism Area Lifecycle model, with early signs of stagnation emerging. Inconsistencies in tourist flows and climate variability challenge the resilience of the park’s energy infrastructure and raise questions about carrying capacity and adaptive capacity. This research contributes a longitudinal, place-based perspective to the understanding of sustainable tourism development and energy transitions in high-altitude protected areas. The Government of Nepal should develop formal policy and regulation that supports community-based energy disaster and resilience planning while also considering tourism flows to properly align energy and tourist infrastructure development with revenues. Further research should investigate the supply side dynamics of resource management and the extent to which tourism may place additional pressure on surrounding areas outside of park boundaries. Keywords: Tourism Lodge development Energy consumption Sustainable Development Mountain Areas
Greenhouse gas fluxes from stormwater ponds and urban wetlands in southern Ontario
(University of Waterloo, 2025-08-28) Withanage, Akshara Sandali Samarasuriya
Urban wetlands and stormwater ponds are an established component of stormwater management integrated with green infrastructure elements. The main aim of these developments is to serve as receptacles for stormwater runoff and mitigate the adverse impact of urbanization on water quality and quantity. While created for stormwater management, urban wetlands and stormwater ponds also provide essential ecosystem services, including sequestration of carbon and preservation of biodiversity while enhancing the aesthetic value of the surrounding environment. Despite these services, these small water bodies accumulate loads of organic matter and nutrients, which undergo different conditions (aerobic/anaerobic) and microbial processes, releasing significant amounts of greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O). Design specification and exposure to aspects of the urban environment may affect the amount of GHGs released. Hence, this study aimed to quantify GHG emissions from 24 distinct stormwater ponds and urban wetlands in the Kitchener- Waterloo region, Southern Ontario, over a seven-month period from May to November and assess the impact of selected environmental, physical and chemical parameters on these GHG emissions. The average daily fluxes across the sampling period were 760 mg CO2 m-2 d-1, 417 mg CH4 m-2 d-1, and 0.23 mg N2O m-2 d-1. Seasonal variation was evident for CO2 and CH4 fluxes, whereas N2O fluxes showed minimal seasonal variation. For CO2, significant predictors included water temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), dissolved organic carbon and NO3- concentrations, and physical features, including sediment depth, pond depth, catchment area and dredging. Methane emissions were primarily driven by in-situ environmental variables, including water temperature, DO concentration and pH, while chemical and physical factors did not significantly influence CH4 fluxes. For N2O, key drivers included NO3- concentration, DO concentration, electrical conductivity and sediment depth. These findings highlight the complex and dynamic role of stormwater management facilities in GHG emissions and the importance of seasonal changes and abiotic factors in shaping emission patterns.
Hydroclimatic influence of seismic line disturbances based on field measurements and modelling across Alberta, Canada
(University of Waterloo, 2025-08-27) Bayatvarkeshi, Maryam
Geologic exploration for petroleum has resulted in a dense network of seismic lines—linear clearings—across the boreal forest, yet their effects on hydrometeorological conditions remain understudied. With a focus on peatland ecosystems, this study used a combination of field-based measurements and hydrological modelling (CoupModel) to investigate the impact of seismic lines on wintertime hydrometeorological conditions, summertime evapotranspiration (ET), and the annual water balance for study sites in Alberta, Canada. Winter assessments revealed that photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) was 1.8 times higher on seismic lines than in the adjacent forest understory, with greater negative net radiation (i.e., high outgoing radiation for the ground surface) also observed. Wind speeds on seismic lines during the unfrozen period were significantly elevated, 8 times higher at an east-west site and 7 times higher at a north-south site, compared to the adjacent undisturbed peatlands. Soil temperatures remained above freezing for seven days longer on the lines, suggesting thermal insulation effects caused by the deeper snowpack observed on the seismic lines. Snowpack dynamics captured by time-lapse photography across upland and peatland sites showed a 5 cm higher maximum snow depth on seismic lines, and a 3 cm greater average snow depth, though the latter was not statistically significant. Snow depth declined more rapidly on seismic lines, but with maximum depth reached five days later, snow-free conditions occurred one day later despite an ablation duration five days shorter than in undisturbed areas. Actual ET (AET) from the ground layer on seismic lines in peatlands was 59% and 14% higher than adjacent areas based on lysimeter and chamber measurements, respectively. Soil temperature, PAR, and plant composition were key drivers of chamber-based AET, while lysimeter-based AET was mainly influenced by PAR and wind speed. Potential ET (PET) was 51% higher on seismic lines, raising the Priestley-Taylor coefficient (α) from 0.61 to 0.73. While not directly measured, tree transpiration estimates from the literature were applied, which revealed that seismic line AET still surpassed that of adjacent areas with an intact tree cover by 31%. Comparing 1-D simulations for on and off seismic line conditions for peatlands from a process-based hydrological model (CoupModel) supported field-based findings, indicating higher soil moisture, temperature, and shallower groundwater depths on seismic lines. The simulated AET was 6% higher on the lines, largely driven by moss evaporation, which compensated for lost canopy transpiration. Despite higher ET, increased precipitation that reaches the ground surface and lateral flow led to 5 mm more water storage on seismic lines. Model sensitivity analysis revealed that an increase in soil compaction substantially elevated runoff, drainage, soil moisture, and storage. The seismic line had a greater difference in conditions from offline areas when peatland canopy LAI was greater; the undisturbed condition with higher LAI resulted in higher transpiration, and cooler soils. Overall, the findings illustrated that seismic line clearing results in measurable local changes in hydrological conditions; future research should explore the impact of seismic lines on the catchment scale to better understand the cumulative impact of these disturbances on hydrological processes in boreal ecosystems.
Quantifying greenhouse gas emissions on a peat stockpile in the northern Alberta Oil Sands Region
(University of Waterloo, 2025-08-19) Santia, Veronica
The Oil Sands Region (OSR) in Alberta, within Canada’s boreal forest, is a combination of three recognized oil deposits. The boreal forest in the OSR can reach peatland coverage of over 50%. Peatlands are natural carbon sinks through a net uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). The removal of peat for mining operations and the subsequent stockpiling of the peat under aerated conditions promote organic matter decomposition, potentially emitting significant amounts of carbon into the atmosphere. Peat stockpiles in the oil sands can stand for decades, often with actively introduced vegetation on the surface, leaving the actual decomposition rates largely unknown. Some studies suggest that all carbon is lost from peat in stockpiles during the initial stripping and stockpiling process, and final use as reclamation soil. This research aims to improve our accounting of wetland soil carbon losses for national emissions reporting by evaluating the carbon emissions on a peat stockpile at an in-situ oil sands lease across different vegetation treatments, locations, and soil moisture contents. To evaluate peat decomposition and carbon emissions, a laboratory incubation with peat samples from the stockpile was conducted over 5 weeks, and in-field carbon fluxes were measured weekly over 4 months using the closed chamber technique for both CO2 and methane (CH4) exchange. The incubation study included peat samples from bare organic, fen, and grass locations on the stockpile. Different soil moisture contents, as well as the presence of roots, were analyzed. The interaction between soil moisture and root presence moderately affected respiration from the peat samples, with the fen sample respiring the most. However, CH4 flux was weakly affected by the same interaction. All wet samples (high soil moisture treatment) produced more CH4 than their dry counterparts. These results give some insight into how the in-field processes of soil moisture and vegetation presence may affect decomposition and respiration. To confirm these results, in-field flux measurements were conducted on the stockpile. Fluxing collars with intact vegetation, clipped vegetation, and trenching were set up along a transect to compare soil respiration and net ecosystem exchange. Each collar treatment was set up in four elevated, dry locations dominated by shrubs and grasses, and four depression locations, with high soil moisture and with mainly sedges present. Biomass was collected to determine the total addition of new organic matter. The net carbon balance of the stockpile treatments was estimated as the difference between soil respiration, CH4 flux, and carbon accumulation in biomass to determine how large a carbon source the stockpile has become. Results suggest no significant difference between stockpile locations (depressions vs elevations) for ecosystem respiration, gross ecosystem production, or net ecosystem exchange, but CH4 emissions were significantly higher at depressions on the top of the stockpile. Depression locations had a greater range in net ecosystem exchange, gross ecosystem production, and ecosystem respiration due to the dense vegetation at these locations and optimal soil moisture contents. The significant increase in CH4 flux at these wet locations, and the greater range in CO2 produced and consumed, align with the findings in the incubation experiment. However, the effects were more pronounced in the in-field data. Utilizing the flux data and the biomass data, the net carbon balance of the stockpile is approximately 539 g C m-2 yr-1. This value indicates that even after a standing duration of 6 years, the stockpile is still a large source of carbon to the atmosphere. All carbon was not lost during the initial construction processes, and serves to be a continuous carbon source in the future. Therefore, large peat stockpiles on oil sand leases have substantial implications for carbon emissions, and accurate emission reporting is needed. This study highlights the importance of studying peat stockpiles since they are large carbon sources and understudied overall. This data will be utilized for annual estimates of peat stockpile-related carbon losses, which will add to our limited knowledge of national-scale estimates of carbon losses from organic soils disturbed by oil sands operations and other infrastructure.
High-resolution Digital Terrain Modelling for Urban Flood Mapping with Deep Learning
(University of Waterloo, 2025-07-22) Tan, Weikai
The rising demand for high-resolution (HR) terrain modelling stems from the growing need for precise 3D geospatial data across various sectors where accurate models of the Earth's surface are vital, such as flood monitoring, environmental management, urban planning, and disaster response. The advancements of remote sensing technologies, especially the Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) and satellite and aerial imaging, offer the capability of producing an HR digital terrain model (DTM) with unprecedented precision to support those increasingly complex analytical and operational tasks, especially in dense urban environments. This thesis tackles three significant challenges in HR terrain modelling for urban flood mapping: 1) lack of geospatial datasets for terrain modelling, 2) underutilization of DTMs in near-real-time urban flood mapping, and 3) limited availability of HR DTM. First, an ultra-large-scale airborne LiDAR point cloud dataset for ground filtering (GF) named OpenGF was built upon open-access airborne laser scanning (ALS) data from four different countries around the world. This dataset covers nine different terrain scenes with three challenging complex test sets to encourage the development of 3D deep neural networks for HR digital terrain modelling. A series of experiments were conducted on OpenGF to evaluate the performance of deep learning (DL) networks on GF. Second, a novel near-real-time multi-sensory HR urban flood mapping framework was proposed. This method features a DTM upscaling method that produces HR DTM from low-resolution (LR) DTM with a fusion approach to reconstruct urban terrain details from HR optical imagery to support urban flood mapping. Meanwhile, a near-real-time visible flood water extraction and a Geographical Information System (GIS) tool were introduced to complete the urban flood mapping workflow. Third, an advanced image-guided DTM upscaling DL network was proposed to produce HR DTM from LR DTM and HR optical imagery with multi-task learning. This network simultaneously performs guided DTM upscaling and semantic segmentation of the HR optical imagery in urban environments. The network comprises an HR image guidance subnetwork that extracts high-level semantic features, and a DTM recovery subnetwork that enhances elevation details through multimodal feature fusion. This thesis also discusses the limitations of the proposed method and provides insights for future research on HR terrain mapping for environmental monitoring.
Development of Ecohydrological Processes on a Partially Removed Well Pad Undergoing Restoration to a Peatland on the Western Boreal Plain, Alberta, Canada
(University of Waterloo, 2025-07-09) McKinnon, Murdoch
Peatlands on the Western Boreal Plain have been disturbed at a landscape scale by industrial developments including those associated with the oil and gas industry. Among these disturbances are in-situ well pads, which are constructed to provide a stable base for oil and gas drilling and extraction infrastructure. In the province of Alberta, Canada, well pads must legally be returned to a state of ‘equivalent land capability’ after decommissioning. For well pads constructed in peatlands, equivalent land capability has recently been defined as including the reestablishment of a self-sustaining and peat accumulating vegetation community. One method proposed to reintroduce peatland vegetation (including peatland mosses) onto decommissioned well pads involves the partial removal of the mineral fill used to construct a well pad. Termed the ‘Partial Removal Technique,’ this approach aligns the reprofiled surface elevation of a pad with that of the water table in the surrounding peatland. Peatland vegetation propagules are then introduced onto the residual mineral substrate using a modified version of the established Moss Layer Transfer Technique. However, considerable uncertainty has remained surrounding the efficacy of the technique as a form of peatland restoration, as it had not yet been applied at the scale of a full-size well pad. Accordingly, a five-year ecohydrological study was undertaken following the first full-scale implementation of the Partial Removal Technique on a well pad. The subject well pad was located in a fen complex on the Western Boreal Plain near the town of Slave Lake, Alberta, Canada. A series of field studies were undertaken to assess the extent to which the residual mineral substrate would support environmental conditions requisite for the initiation and establishment of a peatland vegetation community. Specific objectives addressed included characterization of the hydrophysical properties of the residual mineral fill and their effect on hydrological connectivity with an adjacent fen, and assessment of whether hydrological connectivity was sufficient to maintain a near-surface water table and optimal moisture availability to mosses across the entire site. The role of additional water balance terms in supporting near-surface water tables and water availability was also assessed, including quantification of snowmelt, vertical groundwater exchange, and evapotranspiration. Additionally, monitoring of the development of biogeochemical processes in the first five years post-partial removal was undertaken, including quantification of the rates of nutrient cycling and supply. The effects of microtopography and application of straw mulch and rock phosphate fertilizer on moisture and nutrient dynamics were also assessed. Results indicate that hydrological connectivity between the residual well pad and the adjacent fen was limited by the low hydraulic conductivity of the mineral fill and the compacted peat underlying it. Combined with rapid drainage from the mineral fill into the underlying peat following rainfall, this resulted in the water table being poorly regulated across just over half of the pad’s surface area. The deeper water tables observed in those areas were associated with non-optimal moisture availability to mosses (i.e., exceedance of literature desiccation thresholds), particularly in the late growing season when rainfall inputs were infrequent. Combined with high rates of water loss through evapotranspiration, it appears that much of the pad’s surface area is likely to be favourable for the establishment of only those mosses with a high desiccation tolerance. The establishment of a vegetation community characteristic of swamps may thus occur over the long term in areas that are hydrologically disconnected from the fen. Nonetheless, hydrological connectivity with the adjacent fen was sufficient to maintain a water table within 6 cm of the surface in areas located within approximately 20 to 30 metres of the upgradient pad edges. This water table depth was associated with optimal water supply at the surface for moss survival and growth. As such, the establishment of a peatland true moss community is likely to be supported across just under half of the pad’s surface area. Snowmelt may also have provided a large source of water in the early season, although additional study is required to determine the extent to which snowmelt may be lost from the pad as overland flow. Surface runoff from an upland feature constructed out of the excess mineral fill produced during the partial removal process did not constitute an appreciable source of water to the pad. Nutrient cycling and availability demonstrated limited spatial variability across the residual well pad. Owing to the high cation content of the calcareous residual mineral fill, cation supply rates were sufficiently high to further increase the likelihood of peatland true moss establishment in areas with optimal substrate moisture availability. However, low rates of nitrogen production and a low ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus supply rates indicate that productivity of the vegetation community on the residual pad may be nitrogen limited. This may change over time, as a layer of organic litter was observed to accumulate on the surface of the residual well pad during the study. This is likely to result in increased rates of decomposition, and thus also of nutrient mineralization over time. Combined, the results of this thesis indicate that there is a need to increase horizontal hydrological connectivity with adjacent peatlands in future implementations of the Partial Removal Technique. This may improve the availability of moisture across a greater proportion of the surface area of residual well pads, while also ensuring the long-term development of anaerobic biogeochemical processes. Additional work is also required to reduce water losses in the form of both vertical drainage from residual mineral substrates and evapotranspiration from the surfaces of residual well pads. Overall, the Partial Removal Technique appears to have promise as a strategy to create favourable environmental conditions for the initiation and establishment of peatland mosses on decommissioned well pads.
Comparison of Flow Path Mapping Between Unreal Engine and ArcGIS: The Potential Role for Game Engines in GIScience
(University of Waterloo, 2025-07-09) Fang, Amerald
Advances in the videogame industry, particularly game engines, offer promising, unconventional tools for processing spatial data and representing complex geographical processes through integrated physics. This thesis explores the potential of using Unreal Engine (UE) as a multi-disciplinary platform for combining simulation models from the field of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) with GIS. We present a case study implementing a fluid simulation workflow using Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) and quantitatively compare its results to conventional flowpath mapping methods (D8). A multi-spatial resolution raster comparison revealed that the UE model produced flow paths with a similar length to traditional methods, but with fine-scale disagreements on where flow occurs. The vector path analysis found that the UE model produced more but shorter paths than the D8. The comparison highlights the viability of game engines for dynamic simulation and suggests extensions to broader geocomputation applications such as erosion modelling. Moreover, this research demonstrates how leveraging game engine capabilities can contribute to a more integrative evolution of GIScience.
Developing an Agent-Based Model (ABM) to Explore the Geographic Redistribution of Snowmobilers During a Record Warm Winter
(University of Waterloo, 2025-06-20) Rubiano, Mave
Canada's snowmobile industry is the second largest market in the world, with Ontario generating over $3 billion in economic activity and supporting over 10,000 full time jobs. Inter-annual climate variability and record warm winters have underscored the vulnerability of the industry, which is predicated on natural snowfall and low temperatures to support over 100,000 riders across the 33,000 kilometers network of trails. However, critical regional and methodological gaps limit our understanding of the vulnerability of snowmobiling to both current conditions and projected climate change, with no available research that empirically explores the dynamic relationship between supply- and demand-side responses to marginal climatic conditions. The presented research develops an agent-based model (ABM) to simulate how trail availability influences the spatial redistribution of snowmobilers across Ontario. Using the record warm 2023/2024 winter season as a climate analogue, the ABM was informed by a geospatial analysis of trail network availability (i.e., supply-side vulnerability) and the results from an online survey of snowmobilers' (n=161) (i.e., demand-side vulnerability). Results from the geospatial analysis revealed significant trail closures across the province, with 14 districts having ≤5% trail availability in December followed by an early end to the season (≤1% of trails available in March). Survey findings revealed that 90.4% reducing riding frequency in response to trail closures, but strong willingness to travel (e.g., 61.5% travelled to alternative trails outside their preferred district due to closures, averaging 239.8km for day trips and 861.1km for overnight trips). The ABM simulated the movement of 1,000 snowmobiler agents across the 16 districts, resulting in significant redistribution patterns that underscore differential climate risks, such that some districts gained market share (e.g., Districts 1 and 3) while others incurred substantial losses (e.g., Districts 11 and 6). Collectively, the results suggest the future of snowmobiling in Ontario may involve substantial geographical shifts rather than outright market collapse, with important implications for tourism planning and rural economic development in a warming world.
“You don’t expect a man to make good policies that affect women’s health”: Exploring barriers and opportunities to gender transformative policymaking and programming in Ghana’s health and WaSH sectors.
(University of Waterloo, 2025-06-18) Meho-Akakpo, Pascal
Gender inequality is a prevailing global issue, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), a region highly influenced by patriarchal structures. Gender, a socially constructed concept that encompasses the roles, behaviors, customs, norms, and characteristics identified with men and women, significantly influences life choices, including those associated with health and wellbeing. In an attempt to perform socially ascribed gender roles in SSA relating to Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WaSH), women's health and wellbeing are substantially, typically adversely, impacted. Despite efforts by policymakers and other stakeholders to address gender inequalities in health and WaSH these issues persist. These efforts have been criticized for either lacking a gender focus and/or not deliberately addressing the root causes of gender inequalities or often only focusing on infrastructure access. There have been calls to adopt the Gender Integration Framework (GIF)1 to assess how gender policies address gender norms and inequalities from policy formulation to implementation, and the impacts of these policies in transforming harmful gender norms. Ghana has made progress in formulating gender-related policies and programs in both the health and WaSH sectors; however, gender inequalities persist, especially in rural communities. While research has begun to examine gender-transformative policymaking in the health and WaSH sectors, there has been a limited focus on the perspectives of stakeholders to ascertain their level of awareness of gender-transformation and the opportunities in adopting gender-transformative approaches to address these challenges on the ground. Through a qualitative case-study research design, the thesis begins to fill this gap by exploring stakeholders' knowledge and perspectives about gender transformation as well as identifying barriers and opportunities to gender transformative policymaking and programming in Ghana's health and WaSH sectors. Specifically, the research addressed the following objectives: (1) To explore stakeholders' knowledge and perspectives of gender transformative policymaking and programming in Ghana; (2) To identify barriers to gender transformative policymaking and programming across Ghana's health WaSH sectors. (3) To explore the opportunities within existing government policies to break down barriers to women's empowerment in WaSH. Semi-structured interviews with stakeholders (n=30) in three districts in the Upper West Region of Ghana were conducted from July to August 2024. Participants were purposely sampled from government agencies (n=11), civil service organizations (n=7), and community leaders (n=12). Interviews were digitally recorded and transcribed verbatim for subsequent thematic analysis. The results revealed a significant awareness among stakeholders regarding gender-transformative policymaking and programming in Ghana's health and WaSH sectors. This awareness is attributed to their educational status and/or experience in gender-related fields. Despite the awareness, the findings showed a lack of consensus on what gender transformation entails, as stakeholders approach gender-transformative policymaking and programming based on their institutional goals and visions. Participants also revealed institutional and community-level barriers impeding the full potential of gender transformative policies and programs; these included, at the community level: socio-cultural, financial, logistics, monitoring and evaluation, and corruption. Institutional barriers included: bureaucracy, political commitment, women’s representation, and consultation. The National Health Insurance Scheme, Community-based Health and Planning Services, Community Water and Sanitation Program, and Mother-to-Mother Support Initiative were identified as existing gender-transformative policies and programs with significant potential to transform harmful gender norms and empower women. The results of this thesis research contribute to the broader discussion on gender-transformative policies and programming and their potential to address gender inequalities in health and WaSH. They also contribute to the evidence of the shortfalls of the identified gender-transformative policies and programs, which can inform policy and practice review. Future research that can build on these results includes women empowerment in WaSH, gender norms and gender-based violence, among others.
Game Plan for a Warmer World: Assessing the Climate Change Readiness of National-Level Canadian Sport Organizations
(University of Waterloo, 2025-06-17) Simoes, Kyara
Climate change is increasingly affecting sports, with warming temperatures and extreme weather events disrupting training and competition schedules, heightening health risks for athletes, coaches, and spectators (e.g., heat-related illnesses), as well as damaging sports infrastructure (e.g., flooded fields). At the same time, many sports and sports tourism are carbon intensive, prompting growing commitments to reduce emissions in line with the Paris Agreement. This study applies a structured content analysis, guided by an adapted climate policy integration (CPI) framework, to assess the climate change readiness of national-level Canadian sport organizations (n=86), including Sport Canada, Multisport Service Organizations (MSOs), and National Sport Organizations (NSOs). The integration of climate or environmental considerations into sport governance is critical for supporting the sector’s transition to low-carbon and climate-resilient operations. However, an analysis of official documents and websites found that the climate responses of national-level Canadian sport organizations are fragmented and insufficient, with 29.1% of organizations referencing climate change or environmental sustainability across any communication platform, 19.8% disclosing mitigation or adaptation initiatives, and only 3.5% showing alignment with international climate policy, such as the UN Sport for Climate Action Framework. It is argued that sport organizations must embed climate objectives into strategic planning, strengthen alignment with national climate policy, and build capacity for implementation. This transition should be supported by federal leadership, access to guidance and sector-specific resources, as well as international climate frameworks and best practices in sport sustainability.
Understanding experiences of women’s empowerment through WASH/cash transfers toward post-COVID-19 recovery in Ghana
(University of Waterloo, 2025-06-13) Jebuni, Julius
cash transfers water, sanitation, and hygiene social norms women's empowerment water security covid-19
Polarimetric Decomposition of Fully Polarimetric Synthetic Aperture RADAR to Examine Freshwater Lake Ice Microwave Backscatter Behaviour
(University of Waterloo, 2025-04-29) McRae-Pharo, Connor
Lake ice, a critical component of the cryosphere, plays an essential role in climate regulation, freshwater availability, and the socio-economic stability of northern communities. Despite its importance, the interaction between lake ice and microwave signals remains insufficiently understood, particularly regarding how average lake depth influences microwave backscatter behavior. This study systematically analyzed fully polarimetric C-band, X-band, and L-band SAR data across multiple sites to determine the dominant scattering mechanisms driving lake ice backscatter. The findings demonstrate that single-bounce scattering is the predominant mechanism across all studied sites, irrespective of lake depth and wavelength, aligning with recent research that challenges traditional assumptions about the role of tubular bubbles in backscatter enhancement. These results have refined our understanding of SAR-based lake ice backscatter, paving the wave for more tangible microwave-based lake ice monitoring techniques. By advancing knowledge of microwave-ice interactions, this research enhances remote sensing applications for cryospheric studies and provides critical insights into lake ice dynamics under changing climatic conditions.
Understanding the Dynamics of Human-Tiger Conflict in Chitwan National Park, Nepal
(University of Waterloo, 2025-04-23) Adhikari, Subrat
The forests of Chitwan National Park in the southern lowlands of Nepal provide habitat for more than 100 Bengal tigers. Recently, the tiger populations have increased in the region, which has increased the chances of conflict between tigers and people living in the vicinity of the park. In this study, the aim was to determine the dynamics of human-tiger conflicts and assess the perspectives of the local community towards tigers. Firstly, through desk research on human-tiger conflicts, the spatial and temporal variations of tiger attacks were assessed. Furthermore, clustering analysis was done to determine if the conflicts were uniformly distributed or not. Secondly, semi-structured interviews (n=54) were conducted with key informants and affected households across four municipalities of Chitwan district using targeted sampling. The results clearly revealed that there were hot spots of human-tiger conflicts, particularly concentrated in Bagai and Amaltari sectors. However, the presence of tigers was concentrated in the central core zone of the park. The findings from the interviews suggested that most of the tiger attacks are happening in the morning during collection of fodder in community forests, especially in a period between autumn and spring. The key informants (n=29) suggested that Madi, Meghauli and Kumroj are the areas more prone to attacks from ill and old tigers. The affected households (n=25) experienced tiger attacks within a kilometer from the core park boundaries. In general, people had a positive response towards tiger conservation, which could be attributed to the effective relief distribution scheme and public awareness. However, these affected households suggested that heavy dependency on forest resources compels them to visit community forests frequently despite the danger of the attacks. The coexistence between humans and tigers can be promoted by adopting conservation strategies such as ecotourism, which will uplift the livelihoods of the forest-dependent populations living along the boundaries of the park. Besides, timely identification and management of problem tigers is recommended, which may minimize the human-tiger conflicts.
Assessment of the Proposed Policies for a Carbon Capture and Storage Regulatory Framework in Ontario
(University of Waterloo, 2025-02-21) Kim, Duckhoon; Schweizer, Vanessa
Since 2022, Ontario has been investigating the possibility of developing a Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) framework as they aim to reduce carbon emissions and align with the federal government’s goals of net-zero emissions by 2050. This CCS regulatory framework should focus on hard-to-abate sectors where alternative renewable energy technologies are in their early stages, or they are difficult to be transitioned. However, within the research field of CCS in Ontario from a policy perspective, there are minimal journal articles and grey-literature documents that discuss this topic. Therefore, the purpose of this thesis is to understand and analyze Ontario’s proposal of their regulatory framework for CCS and to give recommendations to the CCS framework by comparing it against the information gathered from other jurisdictions (Alberta, Saskatchewan, the United States, Europe and Australia). Key research questions are 1. How can the knowledge gained from other regions regarding CCS help Ontario's hard-to-abate sectors to understand approvals, licensing, and liability? 2. What are some other necessary policies that Ontario would need to expand upon and potentially adopt from various jurisdictions? And 3. How did companies and governments in other jurisdictions communicate to the public about the need for this technology? The thesis first developed a literature review to compare and contrast policies from other jurisdictions by researching and synthesizing various peer-reviewed journal articles and grey literature. Then, a semi-structured interview was needed to explore any unique perspectives from interviewees with expertise in CCS, and also to understand whether the results aligned with the information from the literature review. Following the interviews, the analysis of the results were accomplished by using ‘codes’ and ‘themes’, which allows for a simplified understanding of which information is unique. As a result, there were unique findings from the interviews such as ensuring proper industries are utilizing CCS, explaining the purpose of CCS, ensuring that the regulatory framework for CCS is properly developed, and the potential for CCS to utilize a carbon market through an Emissions Trading System (ETS). In November 2024, Ontario introduced Bill 228, which contains an Act called the Geologic Carbon Storage Act, 2024. This Act contains the key core components of the regulatory framework, such as ownership, liabilities, and approvals and assessments. As a result, a description and analysis of this Act was undertaken to understand how it compares against my research findings. In conclusion, to answer the first research question, the findings resulted in requiring Ontario to vest in the pore space, implement a unitization statue, implement a transfer of liabilities once certain pre-conditions are met and a post-stewardship fund to cover liability costs. As for the second research question, the other necessary policies include expanding upon environmental assessments methods, using a systems analysis approach to understand the outcomes of developing CCS, incorporating CCS into carbon pricing schemes, and Ontario’s plans on how they should utilize their CCS. The findings for the final research question recommend that the Ontario government and companies recognize the social demographic backgrounds of Ontario; ensure that Ontario is integrating and engaging with communities closely; explaining the downsides of not developing a CCS project; and respecting a community’s decision if they do not wish to engage with the project. Bill 228 is consistent with these findings, namely the inclusion of a liability transfer; a stewardship fund to cover the liabilities for the Crown; unitization of pore spaces; risk management; monitoring, measurement and verification (MMV); emergency response; and various approvals and assessments. However, the ownership of pore spaces deviates from these findings, as Ontario vests pore ownership to the surface owners but still allows the Crown to vest in the pore space when required.
Imagining Shared Food Futures: honouring Canada's obligations towards Anishinaabek foodways
(University of Waterloo, 2025-02-20) Koberinski, Jodi; Scott, Steffanie
Sustainability scholars characterize climate breakdown and biodiversity loss as converging crises tied directly to settler colonial ‘resource management’ regimes. Canada gestures toward mitigating these crises by ‘including’ Indigenous knowledges in environmental impact assessments and policy. Canada prioritizes commodity market profitability over mitigating these crises by excluding Indigenous knowledges in resource management decisions when acting on that knowledge would disrupt industry-favoured practices. One such practice is glyphosate use in forest ‘management.’ Glyphosate is a broad-spectrum agricultural herbicide repurposed to ‘manage’ regrowth after clearcutting forests. Banned by Quebec in 2001, Ontario embraced this practice. In 2013, Anishinaabek Elders along the north shore of the Great Lakes formed the Traditional Ecological Knowledge Elders to campaign for a moratorium on glyphosate use, which is counter to Anishinaabek environmental governance. Proponents claim herbicide use speeds stand regeneration, yet that regeneration converts food-bearing forests to pine plantations. Ontario legislators are not seeing the forest for the trees. This dissertation contributes to radical food geographies scholarship by characterizing the cumulative impacts of forestry policies on Indigenous foodways. Foodways include economic, material, linguistic, spiritual, intergenerational, scientific, ceremonial, and social dimensions of a culture’s food governance. This study concludes that efforts to imagine shared food futures in Canada’s settler colonial context require reframing ‘renewable’ resource extraction as Indigenous foodways disruption. Applying case study and participatory action research methods, I offer three manuscripts that together characterize the limitations of settler colonial knowledge in imagining shared food futures that meet settler treaty obligations. These three studies conclude that converting Anishinaabek food-bearing forests to pine plantations undermines the conditions required for Canada to meet treaty obligations to protect Anishinaabek foodways. In the first manuscript, I adapt Vivero Pol’s multi-governance framework to Canada’s settler colonial context to analyze customary and contemporary Indigenous food initiatives through a food commons lens. This study reveals the limitations of settler colonial frameworks for imagining shared food futures. The second manuscript seeks to overcome these limitations by centring an Anishinaabek research paradigm in collaboration with Traditional Ecological Knowledge Elders of the North Shore of Lake Huron. Our case study examining the cumulative impacts of changes to forestry legislation on Anishinaabek foodways centres TEK Elders’ efforts to stop glyphosate use in forestry. Reflecting on Ontario’s Bill 197, we characterize the limitations of settler colonial knowledge systems for understanding the impacts of forest ‘management’ decisions on settler treaty obligations. To better understand the limitations raised in the first two manuscripts, I apply participatory action research methods in the third manuscript to analyze transcripts from the Canadian Society of Ecological Economics’ bi-annual conferences I co-organized between 2019 and 2021. I ask what Indigenous knowledge holders have to say about the repackaging of Indigenous concepts by sustainability researchers within colonial knowledge systems. Despite gestures towards ‘inclusion’ of Indigenous knowledge, settler colonial frameworks depoliticize Indigenous resistance and resurgence, often reinforcing colonial narratives of land cessation and dispossession. Without addressing the underlying settler colonial assumptions and structures, sustainability scholars and settler governments relying on their research risk replicating the violence inherent in food policy frameworks built on settler supremacy. Collectively, these manuscripts identify actions settler colonial scholars have the responsibility to take up, beginning with transforming settler colonial narratives.
Long-term biophysical conditions and carbon dynamics of a temperate swamp in Southern Ontario, Canada
(University of Waterloo, 2025-02-13) Afolabi, Oluwabamise Lanre; Strack, Maria
In Canada, wetlands cover a land area of 1.5  106 km2 and store ~129 Pg C. However, the carbon (C) cycling of swamps has been understudied even though they store substantial quantity of C in their biomass and can also accumulate peat. In particular, southern Ontario swamps are estimated to hold ~1.1 Pg C under distinct hydroclimatic conditions. Previous studies on temperate swamp C fluxes were mostly based on short-term (<5 years) field measurements that limit our understanding of the multi-decadal dynamics that exist between this ecosystem’s C flux and biophysical conditions. To elucidate the long-term interactions and feedbacks that are important to temperate swamp C dynamics, a process-based model (CoupModel) was used to simulate plant processes, energy, water and C fluxes in one of the most well-preserved swamps in southern Ontario over 78-year period (1983–2060). CoupModel reasonably simulated the C flux and controlling variables when validated with compiled historic field measurements (1983–2023) with coefficient of determination (R2) values of 0.60, 0.95 & 0.61 for soil respiration, surface soil temperature (0–5 cm) and water table level (WTL). Systematic calibration of the initialized model for Beverly Swamp with the Generalized Likelihood Uncertainty Estimation (GLUE) approach moderately reduced the uncertainty associated with modelling processes and assisted in identifying the important parameters that greatly influence temperate swamp C flux simulations. Plant-related processes and hydrological variables exerted the strongest control on the simulation of carbon dioxide (CO2) efflux through soil respiration. The forcing of the GLUE calibrated CoupModel with an ensemble of climate projections downscaled from earth system models (ESMs) under shared socio-economic pathway (SSP5) by mid-century (2060) produced a decline in the swamp’s C uptake capacity as net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of CO2. Relative to the reference period of 1983–2002, the projected increase in mean air temperature (4.3 ± 0.8 oC) and precipitation (0.2 ± 0.1 mm) by 2050s triggered increase in 5 cm deep soil temperature, vapor pressure deficit, and evapotranspiration at Beverly Swamp. These changes to the swamp’s thermal and hydrological conditions dropped its WTL and VMC. Consequently, drier and warmer conditions raised the swamp’s CO2 efflux through ecosystem respiration, while its GPP moderately increased. These bidirectional feedbacks contributed to a reduction in the swamp’s net C uptake (NEE) by the 2050s but it mostly still maintained its net C sink role. While uncertainty in future climate projections and model fit limit our confidence in the precise estimate of future carbon exchange, it was clear that seasonal timing of warming and precipitation played an important role in the swamp response, with coincident declines in precipitation and warming temperatures in summer that caused water stress for plants. Results from this long-term study will help improve our understanding of the important ecohydrological interactions and feedbacks that drive the C cycle of temperate swamps, and their contributions to regional terrestrial C and water cycles. This will help inform decision making on the role of swamp peatlands as nature-based climate solutions through improved understanding of their net C exchange with the atmosphere.
Investigating the Dynamics of Meandering River Cutoffs: Relationships with Discharge, Land Cover and Spatial Clustering
(University of Waterloo, 2025-02-04) Sun, Letong; Robinson, Derek; Lewis, Quinn
As climate change has become one of the major concerns across the globe, investigating the dynamics of meandering river evolution is substantial for urban river management and flood mitigation plans. In recent years, the study on river cutoff has been given lots of attention, as its occurrences and impacts were unpredictable and catastrophic. This study investigates its relationship with high-flow events, land cover and spatial clustering through flood frequency analysis, cutoff ratio criterion and spatial cluster analysis. 1,186 river cutoffs across the United States are located and identified based on Google Earth Imagery. 12 highly sinuous rivers with high cutoff occurrences are then selected and processed through R Studio and ArcGIS. The results show no strong correlation between high-flow events and cutoff occurrence across the study areas. Discharges with an average of approximately eleven-year return period are associated with cutoff occurrences. With the installation of the cutoff ratio in the dataset, it is found that chute cutoffs with higher CRm_m values are likely to occur on land cover types with lower erosion resistance. Neck cutoffs are usually found in floodplains less susceptible to erosion, particularly in undisturbed vegetated areas. Spatial cluster analysis shows that neck cutoffs are significantly clustered at all scales, whereas chute cutoffs exhibit relatively lower clustering tendencies and tend to be more event-driven. Minimizing the random disturbances in the analysis, this study collectively validates the non-random behaviour of cutoff occurrences, which further calls attention to the importance and viability of assessing and predicting cutoff evolution in urban planning and flood management.

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