Studying Immersive Deception: Manifestations and User Perceptions of Deceptive Design in Commercial Virtual Reality

Abstract

Deceptive Design (formerly “dark patterns”) refers to design practices that distort or impair users’ ability to make informed decisions, regardless of intent. As immersive technolo- gies, such as Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR), transform people’s daily experiences, their immersive virtual environments unleash a highly engaging experience while enabling new opportunities for deceptive design strategies that users cannot easily recognize or resist. Consequently, ethical and privacy concerns are expanding into these environments. While previous research has examined deceptive design issues in websites, mobile apps, games, and gamification, the extent of these problems in immersive environ- ments remains largely unexplored. This thesis investigates deceptive design in immersive environments with a specific attention to VR. It identifies deceptive design that presents in VR and emerges from VR technology’s unique properties, and examines their impacts from users’ perspective. We first conducted a systematic literature review to synthesize the state-of-the-art research on deceptive design. This review revealed potential deceptive strategies that can be employed in immersive environments, and those that can be enabled by the large amount of user data collected by these technologies. However, most of the existing literature focused on hypothetical scenarios rather than examining deceptive design as it appears in commercially available applications. Informed by the findings from this review, we surveyed experienced users about their awareness of data practices in immersive technologies, examined deceptive design in commercially available VR applications, and compared these findings with those from traditional computer platforms. To ensure consistent and comparable deceptive design analyses across these platforms, we developed a Deceptive Design Assessment Guide grounded in foundational deceptive design literature. This Assessment Guide was applied and validated in two studies that examined how deceptive practices manifest and influence user experience in exemplary computer and VR applications. Our findings show that the deceptive design in VR applications relies heavily on 2D interfaces, such as dialogue windows and checkboxes, rather than fully integrating VR-specific properties. Hypothesized scenarios from the literature, such as perception-hacking and emotional-based manipulation, were not observed in our selected VR applications. Certain VR properties (e.g., realistic simulation, virtual-physical barrier) amplified the impacts of deceptive design in users’ decision-making process but did not directly enable it. While users cannot point out specific design elements that used deceptive practices, they still expressed a general discomfort and feeling of manipulation. Nevertheless, many users felt powerless in protecting themselves or asserting their autonomy, and perceived deceptive design as a standardized industry practice with no possible escapes. Our research has implications for future research, and immersive technology design, development, and regulation for building better industry design standards and stronger user protections. For future researchers, the findings provide guidance on fostering user awareness through effective educational strategies, expanding theoretical approaches for understanding deceptive design in immersive environments, and refining user-centered empirical approaches for identifying and evaluating deceptive practices. For designers and developers, this thesis offers a structured Assessment Guide and actionable recommendations for supporting the creation of ethical and user-centered immersive applications that respect privacy and autonomy. For immersive technology regulation, this thesis identifies the limitations of current regulations and provides practical advice for expanding and strengthening regulatory frameworks, enforcing transparent privacy communication and ethical industry design standards tailored to immersive technologies. In conclusion, this thesis advances the understanding of deceptive design in commercially available VR applications, delivers actionable strategies for identifying and mitigating deceptive practices, and establishes a foundation for cross-disciplinary collaborations to protect user well-being in immersive environments.