How Architectural Style, Height, and Complexity Influence Perceived Oppressiveness in Urban Spaces

Abstract

The design of urban environments strongly influences psychological experience, yet research on how building form influences affective responses remains limited. This study used immersive virtual reality to examine the combined effects of architectural style (modern vs. contemporary), building height (low-, mid-, and high-rise), and façade complexity (low, medium, high) on affective perceptions of urban streetscapes. Forty-nine participants explored 18 virtual environments and rated each on oppressiveness, openness, restoration, arousal, and environmental liking. Results showed that greater building height consistently increased perceived oppressiveness and arousal while reducing openness, stress restoration, and liking. Greater façade complexity increased preference, openness, and restoration, and buffered the oppressive effects of high-rises, particularly in modern-style settings. Participants also expressed a clear preference for low- and mid-rise settings over high-rises. These findings reiterate and expand on the restorative and aesthetic benefits of architectural complexity and the value of human-scale design in supporting psychological well-being in urban dwellings.