Environment, Resources and Sustainability

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This is the collection for the University of Waterloo's School of Environment, Resources and Sustainability.

Research outputs are organized by type (eg. Master Thesis, Article, Conference Paper).

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City Core Neighbourhoods Designed for Sustainability
(University of Waterloo, 1993) Walker, Judith
Humankind's ability to ensure sustainability of the biosphere depends upon the integrated and concerted efforts of all peoples in all places. This study examines the critical need to focus on the achievement of sustainability in urban centres, specifically in North America, and evaluates the potential for city core neighbourhoods to contribute to the accomplishment of this goal. Four criteria are presented as necessary for the realization of urban sustainability, two of which, livability and equity of access, (identified as the 'social' criteria) become the focus of this inquiry. Community involvement at the neighbourhood level is also identified as necessary to the process by which sustainability will be achieved. The synergy of livability and equity to create a 'sense of community' and attendant community involvement is explored. The St. Lawrence neighbourhood in Toronto serves as a case study to inform future efforts to ensure livability, equity, and the resulting community involvement necessary to achieve urban sustainability, and points to subtle but important lessons regarding the dynamism of various conditions within a neighbourhood that can contribute to this potential.
The participatory design of an ecosystem approach to monitoring in support of sense-making: What's the Point?
(University of Waterloo, 1999) Martell, Richard
Environmental monitoring initiatives are typically conceived as strictly scientific affairs designed to provide support for managerial decision-making; as a consequence most initiatives are centered on a formal mandate or an overarching mission statement that provides direction for monitoring activity. But official frameworks tend to marginalize lay perspectives as experts pursue disciplinary rigor at the expense of public input, a situation not in keeping with the spirit of the biosphere reserve concept. This thesis argues that an alternative design approach that reaches beyond scientists and resource managers is necessary. Environmental monitoring under an ecosystem approach is subject to scientific, social, and bureaucratic demands that defy easy disentanglement. A medley of factors influence how data are collected, interpreted, and used; neglect of these 'soft' dimensions runs the risk of failing to win the enduring support of stakeholders. There is a need to coordinate activity and to partially align multiple perspectives-this is the 'soft underbelly' of integrated monitoring that gets short shrift in most designs. While there is much monitoring being done in and around the Long Point World Biosphere Reserve, there is little coordination among monitoring groups and no obvious way to combine disparate data sets in a meaningful way. This thesis describes the elements of a locally-sensible framework for monitoring practice that is mainly concerned with trying to make sense of confusing and ambiguous situations; it strives to integrate the 'why', 'what', and 'how' of monitoring in as transparent a manner as possible by crafting 'boundary objects' that help to congeal understanding and provide centers of coordination. Using principles of participatory design in the soft-systems tradition, the overall intent is to primarily support sense-making, not decision-making; to generate searching questions, not final solutions; to facilitate learning, not control.
Critical Investigation of the Pulse Contour Method for Obtaining Beat-By-Beat Cardiac Output
(University of Waterloo, 2001) Matushewski, Bradley
The purpose of this study was to explore the efficacy of two existing pulse contour analysis (PCA) models for estimating cardiac stroke volume from the arterial pressure waveform during kicking ergometer exercise and head-up tilt manoeuvres. Secondly, one of the existing models was modified in an attempt to enhance its performance. In part I, seven healthy young adults repeated two submaximal exercise sessions on a kicking ergometer, each with three different sets of steady-state cardiac output comparisons (pulsed Doppler vs. pulse contour). Across all exercise trials regression results were found to be PCA = 1. 23 x Doppler-1. 38 with an r2 = 0. 51. In part II, eight young and eight older male healthy subjects participated in a head-up tilt experiment. Cardiac output comparisons were again performed during the supine and tilt conditions using pulsed Doppler and pulse contour cardiac output. Regression results revealed that PCA performed best during supine conditions and preferentially on the older subjects. In all instances, impedance-calibrated pulse contour analysis will provide reasonable beat-by-beat cardiac output within very narrow confines and will result in a progressively more significant bias as cardiovascular dynamics change. In addition, it appears that heart rate variability negatively influences beat-by-beat pulse contour cardiac output results, further limiting application of existing models.
Enhancing the Role of the Recreationist in the Conservation of Parks and Protected Areas
(University of Waterloo, 2001) Porter, James
The tension between 'acceptable' human use of the environment and the management systems that intend to mitigate this use continues to be an important focus for discussion and research. This is particularly evident in the situation of recreation in parks and protected areas. Enhancing public participation in the development and implementation of resource management objectives has received much attention, in literature and in practice, as a way to mediate this tension. However, how this participation will come about or is to be facilitated necessitates further investigation. This thesis further develops the notion of public participation with a focus on recreationists as a valuable source of assistance for achieving the conservation agenda. It also highlights that the assistance that recreationists could potentially offer remains predominately untapped. Two reasons for this include the restrictiveness inherent in current recreation and environment management approaches, and underlying assumptions that discount the value of public participation or cater to an active public, or recreationist, minority. Drawing on relevant social research, this thesis attempts to better understand the individual recreationist and derive from this an understanding of possible opportunities through which recreationist participation in conservation could be enhanced. Complementing this discussion is an identification of park managers as key recipients of this research, and a redefinition of their role from manager to one that emphasizes aspects of leadership. Two methods were employed to further investigate this research: an extensive review of relevant theory as well as the use of two case studies: Killarney Provincial Park (Ontario, Canada) and Fish Creek Provincial Park (Alberta, Canada). Within each case study, interviews were conducted in the months of June and July 2000 with park staff and other appropriate individuals. At the same time, recreationists from both parks were surveyed. Interviews and survey questions were guided by the primary question of, how can the role of recreationists in the conservation of parks and protected areas be enhanced? Eleven recommendations emerged from this research in regard to: opportunities for recreationists to participate in conservation, the role of social research, and the relationship between park manager and recreationist. This paper concludes by establishing an argument advocating recreationist participation in conservation, and offers ways in which this participation could be achieved.
Cumulative Effects Assessment and Sustainability: Diamond Mining in the Slave Geological Province
(University of Waterloo, 2001) Stiff, Kaarina
The pace of development in Canada's North has renewed concerns about the potential cumulative effects of increasing industrial growth on fragile northern ecosystems. Recent developments in the diamond industry in the Slave Geological Province have highlighted the potential additive and synergistic effects of such development. For example, Aboriginal communities are worried about the health of the Bathurst caribou herd, which is considered central to their way of life. This concern is compounded by the lack of integration of environmental assessment and planning efforts, which could serve to better protect the environment. This research considers the challenges associated with the assessment of cumulative effects, and various approaches to meet these challenges. Diamond mining in the Slave Geological Province, including the BHP and Diavik diamond mines, is used as a case study. Four sustainability-based criteria are developed to evaluate the past and existing situation in the diamond region, and to form the basis for recommendations that would contribute to a more holistic approach to integrating cumulative effects considerations into environmental assessment and regional planning. The analysis demonstrates that although several mechanisms are currently in place to assess cumulative environmental effects, no single initiative fully meets each of the four criteria. However, existing tools can be used and supplemented to identify appropriate response options. The sustainability-based criteria developed here can contribute to further research on cumulative effects assessment and sustainability. The sustainability-based criteria developed here can be adopted for other case studies, to identify strengths and weaknesses, and to develop case specific recommendations for a more holistic approach to integrating cumulative effects considerations into environmental assessment and regional planning. This examination of how cumulative effects assessment has been approached in the Slave Geological Province also provides insight into the broader implications of regional cumulative effects management.
Conservation on a Regional Scale: Assessing the Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative
(University of Waterloo, 2003) McGregor, Tanya; Murphy, Steven N.
Trends in environmental and resource management point to a more collaborative, integrated and regional approach, discussed in terms of concepts such as ecosystem management and collaborative planning. Such an approach has the potential to address some of the shortfalls previously encountered in environmental management and nature conservation, and has been the focus of considerable discussion in the literature. While a number of efforts are underway, there remains a need to identify how a regional approach can best be undertaken in practice. This research assessed the Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative (Y2Y), a recent regional conservation initiative in western North America, which has been the focus of considerable attention in the conservation community. This research assessed the strengths and limitations of the Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative in terms of its contribution to regional conservation planning, aiming to gain an understanding of implications for similar regional conservation efforts. Literature relating to regional conservation was examined to derive principles for effective regional conservation planning, as a basis for comparison with Y2Y. Drawing from needs of ecosystem management, collaborative planning, and related concepts, criteria were developed to assess the formative stages of a regional approach, emphasising capacity building measures and preconditions for success. In order to assess the strengths and limitations of Y2Y at a regional scale, this research attempted to obtain an understanding of how the Y2Y initiative was perceived by multiple stakeholders in regional conservation, as a basis for interpreting multi-stakeholder involvement and buy-in. A series of semi-structured interviews were conducted with a diverse range of individuals involved (directly and indirectly) in conservation planning, in two communities in the Y2Y region, Canmore and Crowsnest Pass, Alberta. These communities were selected to provide a degree of representation of areas within the Alberta portion of the Y2Y region. Perceptions of successes and obstacles of the initiative were compared with the criteria for effective regional conservation planning. Findings pointed to three recurring themes that influenced the initiative's ability to meet the criteria. These were the need to address both ecological and social components of conservation, the need to include diverse participants, and the need to operate at regional and local scales. These themes are consistent with limitations of traditional conservation and management practices critiqued in the literature, and suggest some substantial obstacles for employing a truly collaborative regional approach to conservation. Reflecting on the findings revealed that the Y2Y initiative was primarily understood as a vision. The Y2Y vision is one that has garnered a great deal of support and momentum, although there is a need to progress beyond the vision to address its potential and apply the ideals it puts forward. Recommendations of this study for Y2Y and similar initiatives included the need to build partnerships with more diverse groups, and the need for the Y2Y vision to be promoted in terms of some tangible, more specific goals. This study identified a need for biophysical, social science, and stakeholder information needs to be assessed and prioritised at the start of an initiative. Additionally, a vision was recognised as an effective rallying point from which to develop a regional conservation planning initiative.
SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT AND INDICATOR DEVELOPMENT: THE ELECTRICITY SYSTEM IN DALIAN, CHINA
(University of Waterloo, 2004) Rosenthal, Hendrik
Electricity is used all over the world as a basic source of energy, essential for lighting, powering basic appliances and tools, as well as many other technologies important for today's societies. Electricity is produced, transmitted and distributed to consumers with a range of resources and technologies, resulting in a process that has impacts on sustainability. This thesis examines the interconnections among production, regulation and consumption of electricity, investigating the sustainability of the electricity system broadly defined. Under auspices of the Ecoplan China project, a case study approach is used to assess the sustainability of the electricity system in Dalian, China. Gibson (2002a) argues that sustainability ought to be conceptualized as a set of requirements, which are outlined as principles of sustainability. These principles, in this thesis, form the basis for a Sustainability Assessment of the electricity system in Dalian. The principles provide the analytical framework for reviewing the literature that discusses electricity in sustainability terms and in relation to China. Gibson's conception of sustainability is broad and does not provide guidance on specific procedures for conducting a Sustainability Assessment. The sustainability principles operate on complex systems theory and on the principle of integration, resulting in limitations for their practical application. More specifically, Gibson's principles are operationalized with electricity assessment indices derived for use in the study of Dalian. Relevant indicators are selected based on these indices. This work is exploratory in nature, as it tests the utility of the sustainability principles for assessment and indicator developent. The electricity infrastructure and system regulations relevant for Dalian were reviewed, while local consumer attitudes in relation to electricity were also examined. Dalian is dependent on coal as the primary source of electricity. Production infrastructure also includes a limited supply of wind power. A nuclear plant is being constructed in the region to reduce the need for future expansion of coal-based electricity production. The local grid infrastructure has been improved in recent years to increase efficiency of electricity transmission and to ensure that all residents have access to a reliable supply of electricity. Industrial growth and restructuring has increased the demand for electricity. The local regulatory environment is based on a centralized structure, with much input coming from provincial and state government bodies. Local consumer attitudes were investigated with a survey, in order to shed light on how sustainability and electricity are manifested in Dalian residents. This information is qualified in sustainability terms and relevant indicators are derived. The research is intended to start discussion in Dalian for developing a framework for evaluating sustainability of the electricity system and on sustainable development in general. The study supports Dalian's goal for becoming an eco-city and the results provide recommendations for further study of Dalian's electricity system. Dalian has taken steps to improve the electricity system, but a clear strategy to develop long-term sustainability is necessary. In coordination with local experts and government representatives, Ecoplan China is in a good position to further extend research for developing sustainability-based policy and planning tools for Dalian.
Exploring links between citizen environmental monitoring and decision making: three Canadian case examples
(University of Waterloo, 2004) Hunsberger, Carol
Environmental decision making processes are subject to diverse and at times conflicting pressures. On one hand, an enlightenment perspective places high value on scientific information about complex environmental phenomena, thus encouraging highly trained experts to perform research, interpret results, and provide advice to decision makers. On the other, international and domestic efforts to apply the concept of sustainable development tend to promote an enhanced role for non-expert knowledge and increased opportunities for public participation in decisions that affect local environments and livelihoods. Complicating this scenario further are debates within governments about how to allocate limited resources for environmental research and management. Citizen environmental monitoring initiatives provide an opportunity to examine these considerations as they play out in a variety of settings. From local, grassroots citizen groups to regional networks with government support, a wide range of monitoring programs exist that involve volunteers in gathering environmental information using scientific methods. Many groups attempt to apply their findings to planning initiatives, policy development or environmental law enforcement at local or regional levels. These efforts may blur the distinction between scientific and local knowledge, while raising questions about the relative legitimacy of experts and citizens as producers of knowledge for use in environmental decision making. Using a case study approach, this thesis explores factors affecting the application of information gathered through citizen environmental monitoring programs to decision making processes and outcomes in Comox Valley, British Columbia, and Hamilton and Muskoka, Ontario. Semi-formal interviews were conducted in all three locations with coordinators of citizen groups that perform environmental monitoring, as well as with government representatives who have some involvement with the same citizen monitoring initiatives. Key themes affecting the use of citizen monitoring information emerged from the study, including political will on the part of local decision makers, scientific rigour and data quality of citizen monitoring efforts, and perceived legitimacy of citizen groups in terms of their organizational stability and reputations. Suggestions are presented for overcoming obstacles in each of these areas. The research also identifies further issues that affect the application of citizen-collected data such as the level of matching between the information priorities of citizen groups and governments, as well as collaborative arrangements between program partners. On these issues, interviewees shared their ideal scenarios for citizen monitoring programs with respect to funding, partnership strategies, and best roles for volunteers, citizen groups, and governments who are involved in citizen environmental monitoring programs. Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended that future research investigate further the issues of power sharing, agenda setting, and mutual trust between citizen groups and governments at the local level.
Remedial agriculture: Reconciling ecological restoration and agriculture in the design of a wetland complex
(University of Waterloo, 2004) Rehbein, Christina
Reconciling human landscapes with wildlife needs can demand innovative solutions. Enhancing wildlife conservation in agricultural landscapes requires habitat restoration; returning marginal farmlands to wetlands in a way that remains productive for farmers can aid existing strategies. This study develops and explores the feasibility of an ecological design to rehabilitate wet, poor quality farmland into a wetland that can serve as wildlife habitat while producing a crop. Research targets methods of biophysical site restoration that are feasible for farmers to initiate; identification of temperate wetland crops with potential to meet economic and ecological criteria; and parameters for meeting farmers' needs in terms of management and desirability. Scientific literature on wetland and restoration ecology is examined and integrated with agricultural studies and interview responses from landowners involved in alternative food production. Primary data collection for design development centers on coastal British Columbia, where competing land uses have degraded many former wetlands while the region's fertile soils support prolific, diversified farming. Qualitative, semi-structured interviews with key informants involved in local food production were conducted as part of a participative research process in order to get input and feedback throughout design development. A case study site was chosen in a seasonally flooded agricultural watershed outside of Duncan, B. C. A design is proposed that combines five habitat types with a naturalized cropping system. Major findings include the potential use of many wild and native plants as crops, as a way to provide sufficient economic returns and maintain ecological sustainability. Current opportunities for wetland agriculture include niche marketing, added value products, agrotourism, and increasing sales through farm reputation. Possible deterrents include product marketing, and the unfamiliarity of the plants from a farming perspective, where levels of acceptable damage imposed by fluctuating water conditions, weed competition, and herbivory are undetermined. Participant response was positive overall with regards to the design and preliminary results indicate that such a system could be feasible. Public interest and technical ability to create an agricultural wetland exist; developing creative marketing for such products in North America appears to be the primary challenge. The design is thus proposed as a long-term study to minimize risk for interested landowners. Redesigning human landscapes to include wild species is an important step towards a more sustainable society.
Waterfront Development: A Case Study of Dalian, China
(University of Waterloo, 2004) Dong, Lina
Waterfront development has been an issue of wide concern and extensive discussion since the 1970s. This study provides more insight into the phenomenon by applying the existing knowledge to a different political and economic context. A ?phased model? is proposed as a ?prototype? of waterfront development. It analyzes waterfront development as a series of five temporal stages, i. e. pre-start-up, start-up, early development, mega projects and maturity. Each of the phases is characterized by the involvement of specific stakeholders, issues and events, and outcomes. A trend in the input of stakeholders is discerned: Trends in the inputs of three stakeholders, the municipal government, the special purpose agencies and the private sector, are discerned whereby initial government investments are complemented and eventually exceeded by investments from the private sector. Analyses of three sites in Dalian?s (in Northeast China) waterfront development suggest that all three sites fit appropriately into the phase model. This suggests the applicability of western theory to cases elsewhere in a different political and economic context. The hypothesis on the evolutionary trend of stakeholders? inputs is tested, rendering generally confirmative results that: (1) the municipal government?s input followed a first increasing and then decreasing trend; (2) special purpose agencies? input intensity showed a rising pattern, exceeding that of the municipal government in later phases; (3) The private sector was seldom involved in waterfront development until the mega projects phase but their investments rose sharply after that. Finally, applying criteria for success gleaned from the literature, the overall evaluation of Dalian?s waterfront development can be viewed as being a success. However, the seasonality of tourism, the lifecycle of tourism products and the insufficient respect paid to local residents? interests are pointed out as possible deficiencies.
Modelling native bird diversity in the Greater Toronto Area
(University of Waterloo, 2005) Zajc, Elizabeth
Human-dominated landscapes often have habitat loss and fragmentation. These characteristics described at the landscape scale, called landscape elements, influence species diversity and distribution. These landscape elements include such descriptions as the amount of habitat in the landscape and the degree of fragmentation of the habitat. "Optimization of landscape pattern" studies which landscape elements will maximize species diversity and/or distribution. Some general conclusions have emerged from this research. For example, for some bird species the size of the habitat patch in which a species nests has been found to be more important than landscape variables. However, preliminary research suggested that landscape elements such as the matrix are important urban areas. My study addressed this problem by asking: which elements of the landscape are most important for predicting avian species richness and abundance in the Greater Toronto Area? A literature review revealed a number of variables that have been found to influence bird species diversity within a landscape: area of habitat in which the species nests, amount of habitat within the landscape, degree of fragmentation, vegetation characteristics of the habitat patch, and area within the landscape deemed urban in municipal land-use designations (amount of urbanization). From this literature, I formulated four hypotheses describing the most important variables for avian diversity: (1) the area of the habitat patch is most important, (2) only variables describing the habitat patch itself are important, (3) the area of the habitat patch is important, but landscape variables should also be considered and (4) urbanization is most important. These hypotheses were considered competing explanations of bird species diversity at the landscape scale.

A database of breeding bird data and landscape information, in a geographic information system platform, was used to investigate the comparative strength of the competing hypotheses for the Greater Toronto Area. A mathematical expression with a Poisson model format was created to represent each hypothesis. The model selection technique based on Kullback-Leibler information using the Akaike Information Criterion was deemed most appropriate for the comparison of the models. Four separate Poisson model competitions were completed using two habitat types and two response variables: species richness and total abundance. In three of the four competitions, the best model included the habitat area and the amount of urbanization in the landscape. In the forth competition, this model was considered as strong as another model which included habitat area, amount of habitat in the landscape and degree of fragmentation. The results from the model competition support the hypothesis that habitat area is important, but landscape variables must also be considered to explain avian richness and total abundance. It appears that maintaining native bird biodiversity in the Greater Toronto Area should focus on preserving and possibly increasing habitat area and decreasing adjacent urbanization. Exploration of the best model in the forest analysis with the richness response variable found that a 10% increase in habitat area cause approximately a 10% increase in species richness, and a 10% increase in urban area caused approximately a 20% decrease in species richness. Consequently, current natural heritage planning in Ontario should consider urban development as an important negative effect on native birds.
The Relationship Between Schools, Friends and Smoking Initiation in Elementary School Students
(University of Waterloo, 2005) Atkinson, Christina
Smoking rates among senior students have been related to smoking initiation in younger students. Opportunities to select smoking friends may be one explanation, however our understanding of this process has been limited by cross-sectional designs.

The purpose of this longitudinal study was to determine whether senior student smoking rates a) predict smoking initiation in younger elementary school students, controlling for individual exposure to family and friends who smoke and b) are related to the selection of smoking friends, increasing risk of smoking initiation as a result.

This study involved secondary data analysis of 2798 students from 84 Ontario elementary schools involved with the Third Waterloo Smoking Prevention Project (WSPP3). Grade 8 students completed a questionnaire at baseline to obtain the percentage of senior students who smoke in each school. Students in grade 6 completed a similar questionnaire at baseline, and were surveyed again in grades 7 and 8. Multilevel regression analyses were used to examine school and individual characteristics simultaneously.

Each 5% increase in the senior student smoking rate at a school increased the risk that a non-smoking grade 6 student would try smoking more than once by grade 8 (OR 1. 05) and that a non-smoking grade 6 student with no smoking friends would gain a smoking friend by grade 7 (OR 1. 10). Students who remained non-smokers in grade 7 but gained a smoking friend were more likely to try smoking more than once by grade 8 (OR 4. 31).

In schools where a high proportion of senior students smoked, younger students were more likely to initiate smoking, and gain a smoking friend. Anti-smoking policies and interventions may be more urgently required in these schools to lower senior student smoking rates and reduce initiation among younger students. Tailoring the intensity and content of programs to match the needs of schools is one way to potentially maximize effectiveness.
A Comparison of Addiction and Efficacy Oriented Messages for Smoking Cessation
(University of Waterloo, 2005) Baig, Fauzia Ashraf
Background: Tobacco use remains a major public health issue. Population-level efforts to curb tobacco use include media to promote smoking cessation. However, these campaigns (including tobacco package warning labels) commonly emphasize the addictiveness of nicotine and the difficulty of quitting with statements like ?nicotine is as addictive as heroin and cocaine?. Addiction oriented messages may have an iatrogenic effect on cessation by undermining behavioural precursors such as self-efficacy, cessation outcome expectations, behavioural control, and quit-aid efficacy.

Objectives: First, to determine the effects of addiction focused messages in comparison to efficacy enhanced messages and control messages on smokers? self-efficacy, cessation outcome expectations, behavioural control, and quit-aid efficacy. Second, to determine if the impact of addiction focused messages differ according to participant nicotine dependency level.

Methods: A sample of adult smokers (n>101) from Kitchener/Waterloo and Owen Sound were randomly assigned into one of three intervention conditions: addiction focused (M1), efficacy enhanced (M2), and control (M3). Outcome measures were collected at baseline, post intervention and 30-day follow-up and included: self-efficacy, outcome expectations, behavioural control, quit-aid efficacy, and outcome expectancies. The 30-day follow-up also included measures of smoking consumption, quit attempts and use of a quit-aid.

Results: Majority of the participants were males and between 18-25 years of age. Mean number of cigarettes smoked ranged from 12 to 15 across groups whereas the mean number of years smoked ranged from 12 to 17. General linear analyses revealed no significant effect of message type or nicotine dependence (as measured by the Fagerstrome Test for Nicotine Dependence) on the outcome variables of interest. However, when perceived addiction was substituted as the measure of nicotine dependence, the analysis revealed a main effect for nicotine dependence on self-efficacy post intervention and on cessation outcome expectations at follow-up. An interaction effect was found for outcome expectancy at post intervention.

Conclusion: The results of this study suggest that acute addiction oriented messages may not negatively impact smokers? self-efficacy, outcomes expectations, behavioural control, quit-aid efficacy, and outcome expectancies. However, this does mean that message orientation should be ignored when constructing smoking cessation messages. In fact, program designers are encouraged to employ messages that limit the use of addiction oriented statements such as ?nicotine is as addictive as heroin and cocaine?. Further research is required to examine the potential cumulative impact of addiction oriented messages on quitting behaviour and its precursors.
THE USE OF SCIENCE IN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY MAKING AND THE IMPLICATIONS FOR HEALTH: A CASE STUDY OF BISMUTH SHOTSHELLS
(University of Waterloo, 2005) Fahey, Nathan Satya Cragg
Scientific information is required to make environmental policy that will enhance and protect the health of ecosystems. The issues placed on the policy agenda come from the interactions amongst stakeholders, decision makers and other influential actors. These actors include government, civil society, private sector, and planning regimes. Ideally, scientific research then provides members of the policy community with assessed options upon which final decisions are eventually made.

This process is more complex than most in the realm of environmental policy because the goal of sustainability, commonly advocated by government, should serve to guide choices regarding policy alternatives. Sustainability, in practice, requires simultaneous attention to factors such as the needs of present and future generations; consideration for vastly differing social, environmental, and economic perspectives; and development of effective strategies to deal with the interconnectedness and complexity of the world. Management of these factors demands an ability to collect and process massive amounts of information at different temporal and spatial scales. The complexity of such situations means that there are instances when scientific information is not available and decisions need to be made quickly.

Using a case study approach, this thesis investigates the Canadian Wildlife Service?s attempts to achieve its mandate of conserving migratory birds while approving bismuth as an alternative to lead that was shown to cause poisoning of birds. This case study serves as an example of the tension between limited or ambiguous scientific information and urgent decisions. The chosen policy alternative to the use of lead shot was the approval of bismuth shot as a non-toxic substitute in 1997 and banning the use of lead shot nationwide in 1999. This decision to approve bismuth shot was based upon a few studies that were interpreted in a way that made it appear benign when compared to lead. This thesis examines the implications of this decision by conducting a comprehensive literature review of bismuth?s interactions with soil, vegetation, and animals, with some medical information on humans to put findings into an anthropocentric context. Also, analysis has been carried out on the results of a four-year study on bismuth in a wetland site near Kingston, Ontario, Canada. Finally, a ?post-normal perspective? exploration of the Canadian Wildlife Service revealed that decisions could be harmful to both human and environmental health if the values and knowledge of stakeholders are not taken into account and if uncertainties are overlooked.

Key findings generated by the literature review were potential chronic impacts to the neurological and reproductive health of animals exposed to bismuth shot. In turn, bismuth-contaminated meat may be a source of bismuth for humans and therefore guidelines for consumption should be investigated. Also, soil and vegetation have also been shown to accumulate bismuth, but it is unknown if it amounts to toxic levels. The wetland study helped to address the literature gap of bismuth?s fate in the environment. The mean concentration of bismuth in the soil after four years was 6. 40 µg/g, which was significantly higher than the control soil mean of 0. 42 µg/g. Ultimately, in terms of environmental policy, a ?post-normal perspective? offers three main tools for decision makers faced with urgent issues and uncertain facts. Namely, extended peer communities, acknowledgement and demonstration of uncertainty, and making values explicit.
Behavioural Responses of Artificially Reared Rats to Reward and Novelty
(University of Waterloo, 2005) Lomanowska, Anna M.
Artificial rearing of infant rats is a useful method for studying the role of early experiences in neural and behavioural development because it permits precise control over key features of the early environment without maternal influence. The present thesis examined the behavioural response of artificially reared rats towards natural and drug-mediated rewards, as well as novel environments. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were separated from their mother and litter-mates starting on post-natal day five and reared artificially (AR, n = 39), or they were reared naturally with a foster mother and litter (MR, n = 43). On post-natal day 21, half the rats from each rearing group were housed in isolation and the other half were group-housed with 3-4 rats per cage. Following three weeks in their respective housing conditions, all rats were exposed to three behavioural tests in the following order: open field, elevated plus-maze and sucrose preference. Additionally, one of the two cohorts used in adolescent behavioural testing was later tested in adulthood for conditioned place preference in response to morphine injection (intraperitoneal, 10 mg/kg). Adolescent AR rats were found to be more active in the open field and in the elevated plus-maze than MR rats. Furthermore, although there were no differences between the groups in fearfulness in the open field, in their first experience on the elevated plus-maze AR rats were more anxious than MR rats in exploring the open arms. AR rats also showed increased preference for sucrose consumption relative to chow, although their overall caloric intake during the 1h test was lower than that of MR rats. In adulthood, AR rats displayed a stronger conditioned place preference response to morphine. There were no significant effects of housing condition on any of these outcome measures. These findings support the potential of this model to contribute to the understanding of the role of early experience in the development of behavioural motivation.
An Examination of Smoking-Related Behaviours and Self-Perceptions, and the Role of School Connectedness in Predicting Cigarette Use Among Students at an Ontario University
(University of Waterloo, 2005) Giesler, Jillian
Background. Post-secondary institutions account for more smokers than any other occupational setting in Canada (Hammond, 2005). Unfortunately, little is known about tobacco use among this distinct population of students. The purpose of this study was to identify the prevalence of smoking and patterns of cigarette use among undergraduates at the University of Waterloo. The current study also sought to investigate the role of school connectedness in predicting students? smoking behaviours, and to explore the relation of student smoking status as determined by a behavoural measure and self-reported smoking status.

Methods. A secondary analysis of data collected using the University of Waterloo Tobacco Use Survey (2004) was employed for this research. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics (frequencies, means, and percentages), non-parametric statistics (chi-square and Cohen?s kappa), principle components factor analysis and logistic regression in order to serve the exploratory purposes of the study.

Results. Overall, 17. 55% of the respondents reported current cigarette use (3. 37% daily; 14. 18% non-daily). Although most (85. 5%) students? self-perceptions remained as ?nonsmokers who never smoke? from university entrance to the study date, a greater proportion of students made a negative change in their self-perceived smoking status over this time period than a positive change (10. 13% vs. 4. 38%, respectively). Among students who perceived themselves as ?nonsmokers who never smoke? or ?ex-smokers? at university entrance, being more academically engaged predicted making a negative change in ones? self-perceived smoking status (OR= 1. 924, CI₉₅= 1. 064-3. 480). Finally, the proportion of non-daily smokers differed between the two measures of smoking status. Many students classified as ?occasional smokers? using the behavioural measure actually perceived themselves as ?nonsmokers who smoke sometimes?.

Discussion. The results of this study provide valuable new insights into smoking among Canadian university students. Students who are more academically engaged may be at risk of initiating smoking, perhaps as a means of stress reduction. Furthermore, the adult measure of occasional smoking typically used in tobacco research may be insufficient to inform tobacco control efforts for this population as it results in different proportions of non-daily smokers when compared against students? self-perceived smoking status. The findings of this exploratory research await replication with larger samples and different measures. Implications of the results for practice and further research are discussed.

Conclusions. This strategy of assessing connectedness to school shows promise in predicting post-secondary students? cigarette smoking behaviours. The results also provide support for continued investigation into the best ways to measure and assess current cigarette use in this unique population.
The Voluntary Adoption of Green Electricity by Ontario-Based Businesses
(University of Waterloo, 2005) Berkhout, Thomas
This paper explores the contextual factors that promote and inhibit firms? motivations to adopt a voluntary environmental initiative that is good for the environment but does not provide a clear competitive or legitimating benefit to the firm itself. Using green electricity (e. g. , wind, solar, small hydro, and biomass) as an example of such an initiative, the study uses qualitative research to investigate the willingness of 20 Canadian businesses to voluntarily adopt green electricity for at least a portion of their total electricity requirements.

Although the corporate ecological responsiveness literature reveals that external factors (e. g. , economic, government, infrastructure), organizational factors (e. g. , industry cohesion), and individual factors (e. g. , leadership, individual interest, manager discretion) can all affect the types of environmental projects that firms will adopt, in the case of green electricity the external factors were the more significant obstacles to it being perceived as a viable means to improve corporate environmental performance. In firms currently using green electricity, these obstacles were largely overcome by the successful efforts of an internal champion motivated primarily by individual values. An important aspect of the champion?s success is her ability to attach her personal interest to a tangible business issue. This task is in turn aided by proactive or sustaining corporate environmental strategies that formalize continual environmental improvement processes and are predisposed to evaluating the success of an initiative on more than its financial or legitimizing contribution to the firm.

Based on these findings, the thesis concludes that the two most important factors associated with the willingness of firms to adopt an initiative that is good for the environment but not necessarily good for the firm are the development of decision-making criteria that extend beyond the bottom-line and the capability of concerned individuals to legitimize the initiative within the firm.
Pica among Persons with Intellectual Disability: Prevalence, Correlates, and Interventions
(University of Waterloo, 2006) Ashworth, Melody
Background: Individuals with intellectual disabilities (ID) have a higher prevalence of comorbid psychiatric disorders and challenging behaviours compared to the general population. Though less common, one area of concern among those with ID is pica (the ingestion of inedible substances). To date, there is little knowledge of pica, particularly with respect to its risk factors and social consequences. The closure of Ontario's three remaining facilities by 2009 underscores the importance of having knowledge of complex behaviours such as pica for improving supports and services in the community for these individuals. The aim of this study is to better understand the characteristics and support needs of adults with ID and pica. This study is comprised of a quantitative and qualitative component. QUANTITATIVE STUDY Objectives: To investigate the prevalence, risk factors, social and medical characteristics of pica. To determine how pica is managed in terms of hours of supervision, receipt of interventions, and psychotropic medication. Methods: Secondary data analysis was performed on two samples as part of cross-sectional study: 1008 persons with ID from Ontario's facilities and 420 community-dwelling adults with ID from southwestern Ontario. All persons had been assessed using the interRAI Intellectual Disability (interRAI ID)?a comprehensive and standardized instrument that measures a variety of domains for support planning. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were restricted to the facility sample due to the small size of persons with pica in the community. Results:The overall prevalence of pica was 22. 0% and 3. 3% in the facilities and the community, respectively. Logistic regression analysis showed that being male, cognitive functioning, autism, and being non-verbal were associated with a higher odds of having pica, whereas activities of daily living (ADL) was a protective factor. A quadratic relationship was observed between cognitive function and pica: the risk of pica increased with severity of cognitive impairment up to moderate to severe levels of impairment and then diminished among those with very severe cognitive impairment. Behaviour management, self-care skills, and 8 hours or more of one-to-one supervision were more likely to be provided to persons with pica. Compared to persons without pica, persons with pica had higher rates of being prescribed antipsychotic medication. Surprisingly, pica was not associated with higher rates of gastrointestinal health problems, with the exception of acid reflux. The negative social outcomes of pica, however, were many: pica was associated with higher odds of not having a strong and supportive relationship with family, lack of contact with family or other close relations, and absence of participation in social and recreational activities. QUALITATIVE STUDY Objective: To determine the support needs of adults with ID and pica from the perspective of direct-care staff of facility and community settings. Methods: Through two focus groups, the perspectives of four staff from Huronia Regional Centre (HRC), and six staff from community agencies from southwestern Ontario were examined. Transcripts were analyzed thematically for factors that facilitated or hindered the management of pica. Results: Qualitative data revealed three categories that underpinned reduction in pica: preventative measures (environmental controls, close supervision, and the provision of alternative activities), formal supports, and familiarity with the individual. On the other hand, inadequate staff support, lower functioning level of the individual, and lack of knowledge acted as barriers to managing and reducing pica. These barriers were associated with persons participating in fewer recreational activities and community outings, and in some cases the use of mechanical restraints. Barriers specific to each setting in the management of pica were also illuminated. Staff in both settings tended to be self-sufficient and isolated in managing this complex behaviour. Conclusions: Results suggest that attention should be equally paid to the potential social consequences of pica rather than solely to its health risks. Higher staff to client ratios, and training and education for staff to provide more active support to promote individuals' engagement in recreational activity and community integration is needed. Key recommendations also focus on educating and training staff on the risk factors and appropriate management of pica. Improving the collaboration and knowledge exchange among developmental service agencies is also recommended to enhance the management of pica among caregivers. Lastly, the community at large needs education on pica to foster more inclusive community living for those with ID.
Comprehension of Online Cancer Information: A Propositional Assessment of Readability, Inferences, and Coherence
(University of Waterloo, 2006) Ta-Min, Rachelle
This study was designed to examine the comprehension processes used when reading cancer information found on the Internet and its relation to readability. The focus of the research was on the utilization of an alternative methodology, propositional analysis, to provide indices of textual difficulty that complement standard readability formulas. Kintsch's (1998) framework about discourse comprehension was used to distinguish between textbase and situational factors influencing comprehension.

This study analysed the verbal protocols of 16 community dwelling older adults. They each read a pair of either breast, prostate, or colorectal cancer web pages at low and high readability levels. Propositional density and coherence were measured for the web pages; recall, concepts, inferences, and coherence were measured for the protocols. Coherence was also captured using network representations. The readability formulas used were the Flesch-Kincaid (F-K), Flesch Reading Ease (FRE) and SMOG. Results showed that propositional density did not agree with readability scores, and that the readability formulas did not even produce consistent results among themselves. Results also showed that readability was not associated with web page coherence. Analysis of the protocols revealed marked individual differences for the kinds of information recalled, the types of inferences made, and the coherence of mental models. Variations in background and personal interest appeared to influence whether superordinate or subordinate propositions were recalled. Dependence on prompted versus non-prompted interview questions also varied by individual.

The findings of this study suggest that propositional analysis should be considered as a complementary methodology to readability formulas. Relying solely on these formulas as an indictor of comprehension may mislead online health providers that their information will be understood. The findings also highlight that that individual create distinct and personalized mental models when presented with web pages that are influenced by text and situation based factors.
Developing a Web Tool To Support Youth Tobacco Control
(University of Waterloo, 2006) Morales, Rosanna
Objective: This study was designed to inform the development of a web tool to simplify access to and analysis of available evidence for youth tobacco control. This tool will support planning, evaluation and research related to youth tobacco control. Primary objectives were to examine useful functions and characteristics of potential end-users.
Methods: A pilot-tested, web-based questionnaire was administered to potential end-users (N=43). A purposeful sample of participants was selected to represent individuals working in youth tobacco control from research, health, and education sectors in Western, Central, and Eastern Regions of Canada. Data were analyzed using frequency calculations and cross-tabulations by sector. Results guided the creation of a prototype. Interviews were conducted with a subset of participants (N=6) to validate the prototype and identify further functions. Data were analyzed using content analysis.
Results: Useful functions of the prototype identified varied slightly across sectors. Research participants felt that access to raw data was a useful function. Health sector practitioners were interested in accessing data and creating summary reports of data. Educators were mostly interested in obtaining summary information from data, through reports. Further, health and research participants felt the information resources function was redundant. This research has provided important insights that will guide the development of a functional web tool.
Implications: This tool can enable users to identify effective interventions, track the progress of school or health regions relative to benchmarks, and identify high risk schools or communities to target intervention efforts. This tool is an innovative way to maximize the use of available resources to link research, policy, and practice.

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