Browsing by Author "Risko, Evan F."

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Anticipating cognitive effort: roles of perceived error-likelihood and time demands
(Springer, 2019) Dunn, Timothy L.; Inzlicht, Michael; Risko, Evan F.
Why are some actions evaluated as effortful? In the present set of experiments we address this question by examining individuals’ perception of effort when faced with a trade-off between two putative cognitive costs: how much time a task takes versus how error-prone it is. Specifically, we were interested in whether individuals anticipate engaging in a small amount of hard work (i.e., low time requirement, but high error- likelihood) versus a large amount of easy work (i.e., high time requirement, but low error-likelihood) as being more effortful. In between-subject designs, Experiments 1 through 3 demonstrated that individuals anticipate options that are high in perceived error-likelihood (yet less time consuming) as more effortful than options that are perceived to be more time consuming (yet low in error-likelihood). Further, when asked to evaluate which of the two tasks was (a) more effortful, (b) more error-prone, and (c) more time consuming, effort-based and error-based choices closely tracked one another, but this was not the case for time-based choices. Utilizing a within-subject design, Experiment 4 demonstrated overall similar pattern of judgments as Experiments 1 through 3. However, both judgments of error-likelihood and time demand similarly predicted effort judgments. Results are discussed within the context of extant accounts of cognitive control, with considerations of how error-likelihood and time demands may independently and conjunctively factor into judgments of cognitive effort.
Cue awareness in avoiding effortful control
(Elsevier, 2019) Dunn, Timothy L.; Gaspar, Connor; Risko, Evan F.
Based on a recent metacognitive account, cognitive effort is the result of an inferential evaluation made over explicitly available cues. Following from this account, we present here a pre-registered experiment that tested the specific hypothesis that explicit awareness of cues that are aligned with cognitive demand is a prerequisite in avoiding effortful lines of action. We attempted to modulate levels of effort avoidance behavior by introducing an incentive (between-subjects) to monitor two lines of action that, unbeknownst to individuals, varied in the probability of a task switch. Importantly, previous research has demonstrated that the difference in these probabilities is relatively opaque to individuals. We did not find strong evidence for our incentive manipulation having an effect on demand avoidance as indexed by individuals’ choices in a block of the task where avoiding effort was instructed. However, we do find that being aware of the task- switching cue appears to increase the likelihood of demand avoidance. We consider these results within the context of the metacognition of cognitive effort.
Examining the Implications of Internet Usage for Memory and Cognition: Prospects and Promise
(APA PsycNet, 2019) Risko, Evan F.
Not so fast: Individual differences in impulsiveness are only a modest predictor of cognitive reflection.
(Elsevier, 2020) Littrell, Shane; Fugelsang, Jonathan; Risko, Evan F.
The extent to which a person engages in reflective thinking while problem-solving is often measured using the Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT; Frederick, 2005). Some past research has attributed poorer performance on the CRT to impulsiveness, which is consistent with the close conceptual relation between Type I processing and dispositional impulsiveness (and the putative relation between a tendency to engage in Type I processing and poor performance on the CRT). However, existing research has been mixed on whether such a relation exists. To address this ambiguity, we report two large sample size studies examining the relation between impulsiveness and CRT performance. Unlike previous studies, we use a number of different measures of impulsiveness, as well as measures of cognitive ability and analytic thinking style. Overall, impulsiveness is clearly related to CRT performance at the bivariate level. However, once cognitive ability and analytic thinking style are controlled, these relations become small and, in some cases, non- significant. Thus, dispositional impulsiveness, in and of itself, is not a strong predictor of CRT performance.
Offloading information to an external store increases false recall.
(Elsevier, 2020) Lu, Xinyi; Kelly, Megan O.; Risko, Evan F.
Offloading to-be-remembered information is a ubiquitous memory strategy, yet in relying on external memory stores, our ability to recall from internal memory is often diminished. In the present investigation, we examine how offloading impacts true and false recall. Across three experiments, participants studied and wrote down word lists that were each strongly associated with an unstudied critical word. Recall in the Offloading condition (i.e., when they were told that they would have access to their written lists during recall) was contrasted with a No-Offloading condition (i.e., when they were told that they would not have access to their written lists during recall). We found that offloading decreased true recall of presented words while increasing false recall for unpresented critical words. Results are discussed in terms of offloading’s differential effects on the formation of gist and verbatim traces during encoding.
On our susceptibility to external memory store manipulation: examining the influence of perceived reliability and expected access to an external store.
(Taylor & Francis, 2022) Pereira, April E.; Kelly, Megan O.; Lu, Xinyi; Risko, Evan F.
Offloading memory to external stores (e.g., a saved file) allows us to evade the limitations of our internal memory. One cost of this strategy is that the external memory store used may be accessible to others, and thus, manipulated. Here we examine how reducing the perceived reliability of an external memory store may impact participants’ susceptibility to its manipulation (i.e., endorsing manipulated information as authentic). Across two pre-registered experiments, participants were able to store to-be-remembered information in an external store and on two critical trials, we surreptitiously manipulated the information in that store. Results demonstrate that an explicit notification of a previous manipulation, a reduction in perceived reliability, can decrease susceptibility to manipulation of the external memory store.
On the influence of evaluation context on judgments of effort.
(American Psychology Association, 2022) Ashburner, Michelle; Risko, Evan F.
Cognitive effort is a central construct in our lives, yet our understanding of the processes underlying our judgments of effort are limited. Recent work has suggested that our judgments of effort are sensitive to the context in which they are made (i.e., the judgment context). Using a cognitive task and stimulus set that has produced a reliable dissociation between judgments of effort and cognitive demand (as measured by performance and other indirect measures of demand), we examined whether evaluation context might be able to eliminate this dissociation (i.e., bring judgments of effort more in line with measures of cognitive demand). To address this question, we conducted four experiments manipulating a number of aspects of the judgment context including, principally, a manipulation of joint vs. separate evaluation; whether the judgment was prospective, or retrospective; and whether prospective judgments were made with or without having experienced the cognitive task. Additionally, we collected objective demand measures and examined participants’ self-reported reasons for their judgments of effort across the joint and separate evaluation contexts. Results demonstrated that evaluation context has a marked effect on judgments of effort; however, no judgment context appeared to yield a pattern more similar to what is found using measures of cognitive demand. Moreover, the reasons individuals cited for their judgments varied across evaluation contexts. Implications of the present work for our understanding of judgments of effort are discussed.
Optimizing the use of interpolated tests: The influence of interpolated test lag
(APA PsycNet, 2018) Lavigne, Eric; Risko, Evan F.
The use of recorded lectures is increasing rapidly provided growth in online learning. One technique that can be used to improve learning from recorded lectures is interpolated testing – the presentation of tests throughout the recorded lecture. In the present investigation, we examine a critical question with respect to the implementation of interpolated testing in recorded lectures. Where should the tests be located relative to the tested material? Specifically, we examine the influence of the lag between the presentation of the to-be-remembered material and the interpolated test. Across two experiments we compare an immediate test condition (i.e., a test immediately after the relevant information is presented) and a delayed test condition (i.e., a test is presented about 3 minutes after the relevant information is presented). When no feedback was provided immediate interpolated testing was superior to delayed interpolated testing. There was no difference when feedback was provided. Implications of the present results for implementing interpolated testing in educational contexts are discussed.
Overconfidently Underthinking: Narcissism negatively predicts Cognitive Reflection
(Taylor & Francis, 2020) Littrell, Shane; Fugelsang, Jonathan; Risko, Evan F.
There exists a large body of work examining individual differences in the propensity to engage in reflective thinking processes. However, there is a distinct lack of empirical research examining the role of dispositional factors in these differences and understanding these associations could provide valuable insight into decision-making. Here we examine whether individual differences in cognitive reflection are related to narcissism (excessive self-focused attention) and impulsiveness (trait-based lack of inhibitory control). Participants across three studies completed measures of narcissism, impulsiveness and cognitive reflection. Results indicate that grandiose and vulnerable narcissists differ in their performance on problem-solving tasks (i.e., CRT) and preferences for intuitive thinking, as well as the degree to which they reflect on and understand their own thoughts and enjoy cognitively effortful activities. Additionally, though impulsiveness was significantly related to self-report measures of cognitive reflection (i.e., metacognitive reflection, metacognitive insight, and Need for Cognition), it showed no association with a behavioural measure of cognitive reflection (i.e., CRT scores). Our results suggest that certain individual differences in dispositional and personality characteristics may play important roles in the extent to which individuals engage in certain forms of reflective thinking.
Productions need not match study items to confer a production advantage, but it helps.
(Hogrefe, 2024) Kelly, Megan O.; Lu, Xinyi; Ensor, Tyler M.; MacLeod, Colin M.; Risko, Evan F.
The production effect is the finding that, relative to silent reading, producing information at study (e.g., reading aloud) leads to a benefit in memory. In most studies of this effect, individuals are presented with a set of unique items, and they produce a subset of these items (e.g., they are presented with the to-be-remembered target item TABLE and produce “table”) such that the production is both unique and representative of the target. Across two preregistered experiments, we examined the influence of a production that is unique but that does not match the target (e.g., producing “fence” to the target TABLE, producing “car” to the target TREE, and so on). This kind of production also yielded a significant effect—the mismatching production effect—although it was smaller than the standard production effect (i.e., when productions are both unique and representative of their targets) and was detectable only when targets with "standard" productions were included in the same study phase (i.e., when the type of production was manipulated within participant). We suggest that target-production matching is an important precursor to the production effect, and that the kind of production that brings about a benefit depends on the other productions that are present.
Reducing retrieval time modulates the production effect: Empirical evidence and computational accounts.
(Elsevier, 2022) Kelly, Megan O.; Ensor, Tyler M.; Lu, Xinyi; MacLeod, Colin M.; Risko, Evan F.
Memory is reliably better for information read aloud relative to information read silently—the production effect. Three preregistered experiments examined whether the production effect arises from a more time-consuming retrieval process operating at test that benefits items that were produced at study. Participants studied items either aloud or silently and then completed a recognition test which required responding within a short deadline, under the assumption that a time-consuming retrieval process would be less able to operate when less time was available. Results generally supported this prediction. Even under speeded responding instructions, however, there was a robust production effect, suggesting that other, more rapid, processes also contribute to the production effect. Based on two extant verbal accounts, a computational model of the production effect using REM is introduced.
Semantic partitioning facilitates memory for object location through category-partition cueing.
(Taylor & Francis, 2024) Lu, Xinyi; Zhu, Mona J.H.; Risko, Evan F.
In our lived environments, objects are often semantically organized (e.g., cookware and cutlery are placed close together in the kitchen). Across four experiments, we examined how semantic partitions (that group same-category objects in space) influenced memory for object locations. Participants learned the locations of items in a semantically partitioned display (where each partition contained objects from a single category) as well as a purely visually partitioned display (where each partition contained a scrambled assortment of objects from different categories). Semantic partitions significantly improved location memory accuracy compared to the scrambled display. However, when the correct partition was cued (highlighted) to participants during recall, performance on the semantically partitioned display was similar to the scrambled display. These results suggest that semantic partitions largely benefit memory for location by enhancing the ability to use the given category as a cue for a visually partitioned area (e.g., toys—top left). Our results demonstrate that semantically structured spaces help location memory across partitions, but not items within a partition, providing new insights into the interaction between meaning and memory.
Semantic relatedness can impair memory for item locations
(Springer, 2024) Lu, Xinyi; Zhu, Mona J.; Risko, Evan F.
While memory for semantically related items is improved over unrelated items in many cases, relatedness can also lead to memory costs. Here we examined how the semantic relatedness of words within a display influenced memory for their locations. Participants learned the locations of words inside grid displays; the words in a given display were either from a single category or were from different assorted categories. When a display containing words from a single category was compared to a scrambled display containing words from multiple categories, location memory performance was rendered worse, while word recall performance was significantly improved. Our results suggest that semantically structured spaces can both help and harm memory within the context of a location memory task. We hypothesize that relatedness can improve memory performance by increasing the likelihood that matching candidates will be retrieved, yet might worsen performance that requires distinguishing between similar target representations.
Speeding lectures to make time for retrieval practice: Can we improve the efficiency of interpolated testing?
(American Psychology Association, 2024) Risko, Evan F.; Liu, Junwen; Bianchi, Laura
Testing is increasingly recognized as an important tool in learning. One form of testing often used in lectures, particularly recorded lectures, is interpolated testing wherein tests are interspersed throughout the lecture. Like testing in general, interpolated testing appears to benefit performance on content tests amongst other outcome variables (e.g., mind wandering). While beneficial, adding testing also increases instructional time. In the present investigation we examine one strategy to mitigate the costs of this increase in instructional time in the context of recorded lectures. Specifically, we examine the interaction between increasing the playback speed of a recorded lecture and adding interpolated tests. Results demonstrate that the conjoint effects of these two interventions is largely additive. That is, the benefit of testing was as robust in a normal speed lecture and a lecture that was sped up 1.5x.
Study effort and the memory cost of external store availability.
(Elsevier, 2022) Kelly, Megan O.; Risko, Evan F.
Previous work demonstrates that individuals often recall less information if, at study, there is expectation that an external memory store will be available at test. One explanation for this effect is that when individuals can expect access to an external memory store, they forgo intentional, controlled efforts at encoding. The present work offers a novel test of this account by examining study effort, indexed by study time and self reported strategy use, as a function of instructed external store availability. In two preregistered experiments, participants studied lists of to-be- remembered items for a free recall test and were either instructed that they could use their study list to support them at test or that they could not. Critically, participants controlled their own study time, and no participant had their study list at test, regardless of instruction. Consistent with the effort at encoding account, external store availability influenced both study time and strategy use, and there was evidence that these effects mediated the influence of external store availability on recall performance. Interestingly, much of the memory cost remained when controlling for study effort, thus, suggesting that the cost is potentially multiply determined.
The Bullshitting Frequency Scale: Development and psychometric properties
(The British Psychological Society, 2020) Littrell, Shane; Risko, Evan F.; Fugelsang, Jonathan A.
Recent psychological research has identified important individual differences associated with receptivity to bullshit, which has greatly enhanced our understanding of the processes behind susceptibility to pseudo-profound or otherwise misleading information. However, the bulk of this research attention has focused on cognitive and dispositional factors related to bullshit (the product), while largely overlooking the influences behind bullshitting (the act). Here, we present results from four studies (focusing on the construction and validation of a new, reliable scale measuring the frequency with which individuals engage in two types of bullshitting (persuasive and evasive) in everyday situations. Overall, bullshitting frequency was negatively associated with sincerity, honesty, cognitive ability, open-minded cognition, and self-regard. Additionally, the Bullshitting Frequency Scale was found to reliably measure constructs that are: 1) distinct from lying, and; 2) significantly related to performance on overclaiming and social decision tasks. These results represent an important step forward by demonstrating the utility of the Bullshitting Frequency Scale as well as highlighting certain individual differences that may play important roles in the extent to which individuals engage in everyday bullshitting.
The gist of it: offloading memory does not reduce the benefit of list categorisation.
(Taylor & Francis, 2022) Lu, Xinyi; Kelly, Megan O.; Risko, Evan F.
When we can offload to-be-remembered information to an external store, our ability to recall that information from internal memory can be diminished. However, previous research has suggested that associative memory processes may remain intact in the face of offloading behavior. In the present investigation, we examine how the opportunity to offload memory demands affects the learning of categorized word lists. Across six experiments, participants studied and wrote down word lists that were either strongly associated with a semantic theme (categorized) or word lists that consisted of the same set of words but shuffled across the categorized lists (shuffled). When participants expected to have access to their written lists during the recall test (i.e., a condition that would encourage offloading) but were not given access to it, we found the typical recall advantage for categorized lists. This effect was found to be the same size or larger compared to a condition where participants did not expect to have access to their written lists during the recall test (i.e., a condition that would not allow offloading). We propose that gist memory supported by semantic associations is not substantially reduced in offloading.
The isolation effect when offloading memory
(Elsevier, 2019) Kelly, Megan O.; Risko, Evan F.
Offloading is a widespread and vital strategy for remembering. Yet, we lack a deep understanding of the mechanisms involved during the offloading of to-be-remembered information. One hypothesis is that offloading information is associated with a reduced engagement of top-down mnemonic strategies. A resulting prediction is that phenomena not solely by-products of such mechanisms should remain during offloading. We tested this prediction using the isolation effect (when recall is better for distinct items relative to nondistinct items). Participants had to remember lists of items (words) and, in most cases, were told that they could rely on an external store. On one trial, this expectation was violated, and participants had to unexpectedly rely on their internal/biological memory. Consistent with the prediction, results demonstrate a robust isolation effect irrespective of whether individuals could offload. The findings suggest that memory for distinct events is less susceptible to the typical cost of offloading to-be-remembered information.
The prod eff: Partially producing items moderates the production effect.
(Springer, 2024) Kelly, Megan O.; Ensor, Tyler M.; MacLeod, Colin M.; Risko, Evan F.
Current accounts of the production effect suggest that production leads to the encoding of additional production-associated features and/or better feature encoding. Thus, if it is the act of production that leads to the storage and/or enhanced encoding of these features, then less of this act should reduce the resulting production effect. In two experiments, we provide a direct test of his idea by manipulating how much of a given item is produced within a single mode of production (typing). Results demonstrate that such partial production can yield a significant production effect that is smaller than the effect that emerges from producing the entire item. These results suggest that how much of an item is produced can moderate the size of the production effect and are considered in the context of recent modelling efforts.
The role of graphics in video lectures
(Taylor & Francis, 2021) Bianchi, Laura J.; Risko, Evan F.
With the increase in online course use (Allen & Seaman, 2017), there is an increasing need to determine the most effective (i.e., the most conducive for learning) way to present lectures online (e.g., video lectures). Lecture graphics that are interesting but extraneous to the content (e.g., a celebrity), have been shown to impair comprehension of the material, likely resulting from an increase in cognitive load. In this study, the use of graphics on the slides of an online psychology lecture was manipulated to determine the extent to which images can improve (or impair) comprehension as well as the effect it may have on intentional and unintentional mindwandering. Across our two experiments, we demonstrate no differences across conditions (i.e., unnecessary graphics, relevant graphics, no graphics) in overall comprehension and limited differences in mind wandering behavior.