Sociology and Legal Studies

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This is the collection for the University of Waterloo's Department of Sociology and Legal Studies.

Research outputs are organized by type (eg. Master Thesis, Article, Conference Paper).

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Beyond Academia: Examining the Versatile Career Paths of PhDs
(University of Waterloo, 2020-05-14) Etmanski, Brittany; Aurini, Janice; Gallupe, Owen
This dissertation employs a mixed-methods approach to examine the career transitions of Canadian PhDs. Moving beyond dichotomous definitions of PhD outcomes (as “academic” or “non-academic”) this research aims to identify and explore the expansive career opportunities available to PhDs outside of academia. It draws upon the confidential version of Statistics Canada’s 2013 National Graduates Survey as accessed through the South Western Research Data Centre (SWORDC), and national-scale primary data collected between April 2018-April 2019. The results are informed by human capital, credentialist and field theories. The quantitative analysis of Chapter 2 examined the job quality and experiences associated with PhDs from numerous disciplines in three main employment sectors. Using Statistics Canada’s 2013 National Graduates Survey (NGS), the results showed that PhDs were most strongly represented in the private and academic sectors. Social science and law graduates were most likely to be employed within the public sector. In comparison, those from the physical and life sciences as well as hard sciences were most likely to be employed in the private sector. Relating to job quality, those employed in the public sector were most likely to be employed part time. Furthermore, PhDs employed in non-academic sectors were more likely to be overqualified. This finding suggests that PhDs may be less certain of how to market their skills to a non-academic audience, or it may point to a lack of non-academic opportunities for PhDs. The quantitative analysis of Chapter 3 considered how measures of technical competency (e.g., publications, funding, research assistantships, sessional positions) may affect candidates’ ability to secure initial employment within academia. Employing primary survey data gathered from social science PhDs across Canada, the results suggested that publications, as a measure of technical competence, are a strong predictor of reporting an initial career within academia. However, certain socio-demographic characteristics (e.g., gender, race, parental education) were better predictors of securing academic employment than measures related to respondents’ technical competency (e.g., research assistantships, sessional appointments). These results may indicate two things. First, the decreased likelihood of females and certain visible minorities may indicate weaker practices of affirmative action occurring within institutions. Second, that highly-educated parents may provide mentorship that is more aligned with their children’s goal of obtaining an academic appointment. Finally, the qualitative analysis of Chapter 4 draws on field theory to examine the strength of the connections forged between social science PhD programs and employment sectors beyond academia. To determine social science PhDs career preparedness, the research examined: (1) Whether career opportunities presented and promoted to social science PhDs have evolved alongside market demand; and (2) Whether institutional initiatives have promoted stronger academia-industry connections. Drawing on 28 interviews with PhDs from 5 social science disciplines, the results suggested that academic career norms are perpetuated at the department level. Though institutions—more generally—have broadened the career preparation offered to PhDs, ties to industry remain weak. To forge new norms strengthening academia-industry links, some participants reflected on the benefit associated with an internship opportunity during the PhD program. Future research would benefit from examining whether work-integrated learning (WIL) opportunities for PhD students are associated with a greater level of work-readiness in employment sectors beyond academia.
Bridging the Soft-Skills Gap between Canadian Post-Secondary Education and Employment through Work-Integrated Learning: A Case Study on Arts Students
(University of Waterloo, 2023-06-20) Dreesha, Mrittika; Aurini, Janice; Gallupe, Owen; Chenier, Allison
Post-secondary institutions in Canada are currently under the microscope as the unemployment rate among new graduates continue to rise. Contemporary sociologists have suggested that work-integrated learning (WIL) can be a powerful tool to reverse the rising trends in unemployment rate by helping students develop soft-skills, gain relevant work experience, and apply classroom knowledge in real-world situations (Martin & Rouleau, 2020). Researchers have also highlighted that although WIL programs can be an effective pedagogical approach in all fields of study, there is a heightened importance for Arts students to participate in WIL (Li, 2016) as this specific group tends to encounter greater barriers in terms of finding employment (Yamamoto, 2014; Zeid et al., 2015). Despite the importance of WIL, there is a lack of Canadian qualitative research that documents the perspectives of Ontario Arts students regarding WIL programs. This is highly imperative as Arts degree-holders are often under-or-unemployed post-graduation (Zeid et al., 2015), particularly in Ontario which has one of the highest unemployment rates among graduates. To bridge this critical gap within the landscape of higher education literature on WIL, I have conducted a qualitative case study entailing 50 semi-structured interviews of Arts students from world’s largest co-op institution—the University of Waterloo, which serves as a strong exemplar of WIL as a successful education model on both national and global levels (University of Waterloo, 2023b). Using NVivo software data analysis techniques, I have answered four research questions which involved investigating the perceptions of WIL among Arts students, the key benefits and transferable soft-skills gained through WIL in Arts programs, the common challenges associated with WIL in Arts disciplines, and the WIL-related policies/practices that Arts students recommend to post-secondary institutions. Grounding this project on human capital theory, situated learning theory, and credentialism, the main findings reveal that when the value of WIL experience for Arts versus non-Arts programs are compared, students who are pursuing non-conventional Arts majors such as Accounting, Finance, and Economics consider the importance of WIL to be same or similar for all fields, whereas students from traditional Arts programs such as Sociology, Psychology, and History predict that WIL experience can be a higher economic investment and a larger evidence of competencies for Arts degree-holders as they are more likely to experience greater difficulties in the job market due to Arts professions being stigmatized. Furthermore, the non co-op students voiced their concerns regarding insufficient exposure and awareness of WIL in post-secondary institutions which resulted in their lack of participation, whereas the co-op students expressed that there are limited field-specific WIL placements and low departmental/faculty support which made their process of seeking and securing co-op positions challenging. Both groups of students perceive that there is a shortage of WIL opportunities within the Faculty of Arts, and thus, they emphasized on the increasing need to make WIL accessible for all Arts students which can contribute towards their human capital growth, graduate employability, and ultimately improve their school-to-work transition while bridging the soft-skills gap between post-secondary education and employment.
Dine and Dash: A Test of Criminological Theory
(University of Waterloo, 2018-08-20) Ryan, Ashley; Gallupe, Owen
No known research has tested the etiological processes underlying “dining and dashing,” an act that has substantial financial implications for the restaurant industry. Dine and dash is defined as people using a food and/or beverage service that is expected to be paid for and leaving the premises with no intention of returning to pay. Predictors were drawn from social learning, rational choice, and social control theories. Using a survey sample of 358 undergraduate and graduate students from a Canadian university, we found partial support for social learning and rational choice theories. Individuals who knew someone else who had dined and dashed were more likely to dine and dash themselves (social learning theory) (OR=11.58, p<0.001). When an individual thought they would suffer consequences (e.g., paying a fine), they were less likely to dine and dash (rational choice theory) (OR=0.77, p<0.001). Lastly, individuals who committed a dine and dash were more likely to report that target hardening measures (e.g., security cameras) played a role in their decision to commit the act (OR=1.13, p=0.012) which suggests they were more situationally aware. No variables drawn from social control theory were related to dining and dashing.
Effects of Social Status on Concerns with Status Losses and Status Gains in Impaired Driving Scenarios: Loss Aversion and Deviance in Peer Groups
(University of Waterloo, 2024-04-15) Lisk, Rachel Anne; Gallupe, Owen; Wilkins-Laflamme, Sarah
At the forefront of current peer influence research in criminology is an attempt to understand how peers impact an individual’s participation in crime and deviance. Research seeks to explore whether social forces shape decision-making processes that lead a person to commit a deviant or dangerous act. This study examines how social status (popularity and social competency) and peer relations affect individuals’ willingness to engage in impaired driving related actions. More specifically, through the use of a survey experiment, this research project examines whether a person's social status and peers framing an act of deviance as social status losses or gains impacts a person’s willingness to drive impaired or get into a car with an impaired driver. In addition to the survey experiment, to further understand connections between impaired driving and young people, this project includes a thematic analysis examine the ways in which these effects of peer influence and social status are presented (or not) in relevant public engagement materials that seek to educate youth about impaired driving.
Peer Language Use and Criminal Decision-Making: An Experimental Study Testing Framing Effects of Peer Messages
(University of Waterloo, 2023-05-25) Dain, Natanela; Gallupe, Owen
Criminal decision-making tends to occur in social contexts. There is evidence that the decision to commit a crime is often preceded by verbal communication, however, relatively little is known about the mechanisms through which conversations affect offending decisions. In this study, we applied rational choice theory, prospect theory, and need to belong theory to investigate the role of peer language use on offending decisions. We tested the hypothesis that peer messages framed as social gains and social losses would increase the likelihood and perceived worth of engaging in criminal activity. Moreover, based on prospect theory’s loss aversion principle, we hypothesized that this increase would be greater for peer messages framed as social losses. We recruited 313 North American young adults (ages 18-24) to participate in an online randomized experiment. We found that peer verbal prompts framed as social gains and social losses increased the likelihood of stealing. Although this increase was not larger for social loss framed messages, our results showed that social loss aversion, or the fear of losing belonging, significantly predicted all offending outcomes. Moreover, the effects of social loss framing on likelihood and perceived worth of stealing were significantly mediated by fear of losing acceptance. This study substantiates that peer language use plays a significant role in offending decisions and provides support for the social loss aversion principle. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.
Police Militarization in Canada: Examining Racial Disparities in Use of Force and Understanding the Consequences of Citizen-Police Encounters Using a Mixed-Methods Investigation
(University of Waterloo, 2025-01-17) Sidhu, Tandeep; Gallupe, Owen
Despite being a critical issue in the contemporary discussion on police reform in Canada, the research investigating tactical units is still in its infancy. The existing research in this area primarily focuses on the proliferation of police militarization and its argued incursion into more general elements of patrol policing. Absent from this discussion is an analysis of use of force, racial disparities in use of force outcomes, and lived experiences of encounters with tactical units. This dissertation addresses these gaps in the literature by applying a mixed-methods approach to investigate (a) the intersections between tactical unit use of force and race and (b) the social, economic, and psychosocial challenges facing individuals who have encountered these militarized policing elements. The quantitative aspect of the research relies on the use of freedom of information requests to collect use of force reports submitted by tactical units between January 1, 2020 and December 31, 2022. The study employs the racial disproportionality and disparity index mandated by Ontario’s Anti-Racism Act. Furthermore, the quantitative aspect of this research applies a series of univariate, bivariate, and multivariate statistical analyses to develop a knowledge base in this area and find what, if any, variables are statistically significant predictors of use of force. The qualitative aspect of this research relies on semi-structured interviews with 25 individuals who have, directly or vicariously, encountered a police tactical unit and asks a series of questions concerning the nature of the encounter and its consequences for the individual and, if relevant, their family unit. The findings of the quantitative research demonstrate that Black people are grossly overrepresented in use of force incidents involving tactical units. Unlike their White counterparts, Black people are less frequently armed in these incidents and more likely to encounter tactical units in proactive (planned) deployments. The multivariate analysis also finds that, when controlling for a range of other variables, Black people are statistically more likely to have a firearm pointed at them. Beyond the findings central to this research, the dissertation also finds evidence suggesting significant and systemic underreporting of use of force. I argue that the reporting framework is not intended to address systemic discrimination but functions to legitimize police use of force and expand militarized policing. I argue that race-based data collection functions as a form of racialized knowledge construction rather than a mechanism through which systemic racism may be addressed. The qualitative research findings demonstrate the wide-ranging social, economic, and psychological consequences of encounters with police tactical units. The results indicate that individuals and families face various financial challenges, such as the destruction and loss of personal property, damage to their residence, and loss of access to social housing. Some participants experience theft, and others report having to pay to repair financial costs sustained. Experiences of violence are also common among these interactions with police, as are social stigma and a range of psychological outcomes owing to the traumatic nature of these incidents. Black participants also draw on the idea of communal trauma and suggest these encounters with tactical units can be further contextualized as a tool of racialized social control directed against the Black community. The qualitative accounts also demonstrate the absence of formal institutional support and the reliance on informal support networks to manage these challenges. Finally, the accounts indicate a significant disruption to the family unit, including a loss of housing and disruptions in familial relationships. This research relies on the use of critical race perspectives to contextualize the use of tactical units as a colourblind form of social control disproportionately applied against the Black community. The institution maintains the veneer of race neutrality by making appeals to crime control and public safety, which facilitates the expansion of aggressive policing practices and exacerbates existing racial and socioeconomic inequalities. The dissertation also offers a series of recommendations.
Pressuring Others: Examining the Motivations Behind Deviant Instigation and the Strategies That Accompany Them
(University of Waterloo, 2023-06-30) Ryan, Ashley; Gallupe, Owen
Research on the motivations behind peer pressure and deviance has been close to non-existent. This dissertation presents a mixed methods study that was conducted exploring the motivations and strategies behind deviant instigation. In phase one of this research, semi-structured interviews (n=40) were conducted with people who have encouraged others to either steal or use alcohol or drugs in a context that was against the law. Phase two of this research tested the main motivations and strategies resulting from phase one in an online survey (n=214) with people residing in Canada and the United States alongside a wide variety of acts and other possible motivations and strategies. Although multiple motivations and strategies were used by people pressuring others, a few consistently emerged. Specifically, the most common motivations for why people encouraged others to break the law included seeking an improved experience for themselves in the moment and wanting to help the other person. The most common strategy for enacting this pressure was providing reassurance (e.g., “You’ll be fine!”). This dissertation will discuss this research in depth as well future directions and implications.
The Weight of Fitting the Description: Using Critical Race Theory to Explore Black and Indigenous Youth Perceptions of the Police
(University of Waterloo, 2021-05-26) Wortley, Kanika; Gallupe, Owen
Effective law enforcement is contingent on public support. A growing volume of research examining public perceptions of the police suggest that trust and confidence in the police is very low among youth and specific racialized populations. However, there is a gap in Canadian research that examines the complexities of the relations between racialized youth and the police. The following dissertation employs a mixed-methods approach to explore youth perceptions of the police in Canada. With a focus on a racially diverse sample of Black, Indigenous and White youth, the study aims to examine whether there are racial differences with respect to confidence in law enforcement. Using Statistics Canada’s 2014 General Social Survey (GSS) on victimization (cycle 28), the first study specifically examines Black, Indigenous and White youth’s attitude toward the police. Both bivariate and multivariate analyses suggest that race plays a significant role in identifying Canadian youth's perception of the police. Thus, in Canada, Black and Indigenous youth have lower confidence in the police compared to their White counterparts. Furthermore, a multivariate analysis suggests that gender, geographic location and previous victimization also have an impact on confidence in police. The results of these findings go against Canada’s international reputation as a tolerant multicultural society. However, due to formal and informal bans on the collection of race-based data, little is known about racialized youth perceptions of police within Canada. Thus, to have a better understanding as to why Black and Indigenous youth report negative perceptions of the police, the second study employs the critical race methodology of composite counter storytelling. This approach will highlight the perspectives of Black and Indigenous youth in Toronto, Canada’s largest metropolitan city, and explore their experiences with law enforcement. This aims to counter Canada’s international status as a multicultural utopia and demonstrate how legal criminal justice actors, such as the police, perpetuate the marginalized status of Black and Indigenous youth through the process of criminalization. Continuing a critical race perspective, the final study explores the impact of both negative experiences and perceptions of the police among Black and Indigenous youth in Canada. The findings suggest that as a result of perceived racial bias within policing, Black and Indigenous youth are less likely to report personal violent victimization to law enforcement officials. As a result, I argue that in Canada, due to systemic racial bias within policing, both Black and Indigenous youth are at an increased risk of violent victimization, and thus furthering their vulnerability and marginalization within society. The concluding chapter explores the implications of these findings and policy recommendations for Canadian police agencies.

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